
Class JB^ ^ 2. O 

Book. 

CopyriglitN^_ 



CfiPaUGHT DSPOSIE 




IL I VM LlII i r 1. UO M KETH. 



' Come in, O gj-acious Form ! I say — ' 
O Workman, share my Jionse of clay ! 
Then I, at bench, or desk, or oar. 
With last or needle, net or pen, 
As Tho?i in Nazareth of yore, 
Shall do the Father s will again.'' 




Home-life 

IN THE Bible 

BY 

HENRIETTA LEE PALMER 

AUTHOR OF "THE STRATFORD GALLERY" 
EDITED BY 

JOHN WILLIAMSON PALMER 




TWO HUNDRED AND TWENTY ILLUSTRATIONS 



BOSTON ^'^iL^Of^v/ASHiv*^. 

JAMES R. OSGOOD AND COMPANY 
1881 




f 



^ /^^^ 



COPYKIGHT, 1881, 

By JAMES R. OSGOOD & CO. 



All rights reserved. 



EUctrotyped and Printed by Rand, Avery, &> Co., 
Boston, Mass. 



C. E. P. 



WITH HIS MOTHER'S LOVE, 



"My son, hearken unto me, . . . and mark my words with thy 
heart. I will show forth doctrine in weight, and declare His 
knowledge exactly." 

ECCLESIASTICUS xvi. 24, 25. 





^ ll^HJifojtumj fur \k ^nmt 



IN THE GREEN PARISH OF DEVONSHIRE. 

Lord I Thou hast given me a Cell 

Wherein to dwell : 
A little House, whose humble Roof 

Is weather-proof, 
Under the Spars of which I lie 

Both soft and dry ; 
AVhere Thou, my Chamber for to ward, 

Hast set a guard 
Of harmless thoughts, to watch and keej; 

Me while I sleep. 
Low is my Porch, as is my fate, — 

Both void of state ; 
And yet the threshold of my Door 

Is worn l)y th' Poor, 
Who thither come, and freely get 

Good words or Meat. 
Like as my Parlor, so my Hall 

And Kitchin's small ; 
A little Buttery, and therein 

A little Bin, 
Which keeps my little Loaf of bread 

Unchipt, unflead ; 
Some little sticks of thorn or briar 
Make me a Fire, 

Close by whose living coal I sit. 
And glow like it. 

Lord, I confess too, when I dine 
The Pulse is Thine ; 

And all those other bits that bee 
There placed by Thee : 



A THANKSGIVING FOR HIS HOME. 

The Worts, the Purslain, and the mess 

Of Water-cress, — 
Which of Thy kindness Tliou hast sent ; 

And my Content 
Makes those, and my beloved Beet, 

To be more sweet. 
'Tis Thou that crown'st my glittering Hearth 

With guiltless Mirth, 
And giv'st me Wassail-bowls to drink, 

Spiced to the brink. 
Lord, 'tis Thy plenty-dropping Hand ™ 

That soils my Land, 
And gives me, for my Bushel sown, I 

Twice ten for one. 
Thou mak'st my teeming Hen to lay 

Her Egg each day, 
Besides my healthful Ewes to bear 

Me Twins each year, 
The while the conduits of my Kine 

Run Cream for wme. 
All these, and better. Thou dost send 

Me, to this end : 
That I should render, for my part, 

A Thankful Heart, 
Which, fired with incense, I resign 

As wholly Thine ; 
But the Acceptance, that must be. 

My Christ, by Thee ! 

Robert Herrick. [1661.] 



(^oniGnTS. 



I. Habitations and Homes 1 

ir. FURNITTJKE AND UtENSILS ..... 34 

III. Marriage, Widowhood, and Divorce ... 53 

IV. Children: Their Training and Schooling . 92 
V. The Higher Education 129 

VI. Employments and Servants 144 

VII. Larder, Kitchen, and Table 159 

VIII. Dress and Ornaments 203 

IX. The Toilet and the Bath 227 

X. Domestic and Public Worship .... 252 

XI. Music: Sacred and Secular 291 

XII. Alms and Hospitalities 300 

XIII. Seedtime and Harvest 312 

XIV. Flocks a^d Herds ....... 332 

XV. Sickness and Death 366 

XVI. Burial and Mourning 380 



Ll$T OF lLLU$TRaTIOnS. 



"He standeth at the Door, and knocketh" . , . Frontispiece.-' 

Vignette i , 

Lombardy Poplars . . . . . . . . . -Trr /X 

Dawn of Creation .......... 1 

An Ancient Stronghold ........ 2 

The Brick Mounds of Babylon . . . . . . . 3- 

A Walled Town .......... 5 

A City Gate G 

Cavern at Banias : Head of the Jordan ..... 1 / 

Cave Dwellings 10 

Tent-Life ........... 11 

An Encampment 12 

Babel 13 

Brick, with Name of Nebuchadnezzar 14 

Masons of Ancient Egypt ........ 15 

Where Thieves break through 16 

A Group of Dwellings ........ 17 

Battlemented House . . . . . . . . .18 

Prayer on the House-Top 19 

Roofs and Battlements . . . . . . . . .20 

Conventional Ornament 21 

Court of an Eastern House ........ 22 

The Court of the Garden ........ 23 

Outer Staircase 24 

A Chamber on the Wall ........ 25 

Egyptian Latticed Window . . . . . . . .26 

Windows ........... 26 

Egyptian Door and Hinges 28 

Egyptian Door 29 

The Palm 31 

xiii 



XIV LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Pase 

Exterior Decoration 32 

Sculptured Pillars . . . . . . . . . , 33 

Water-Pots ........... 34 

Date-Palm 36 

Assyrian Couch . . . ■ 38 

Egyptian Coffers, or Arks ........ 39 

Seven-Branched Candlestick 41 

Lamps ............ 42 

Egyptian Pots and Pans ........ 43 

Pitchers . . . . . . . . . . . .44 

Hand-Mill ... 44 

Women at the Mill .......... 45 

Egyptian Earthen Vessels . . . . . . . . 46 

Skin Bottles . . . . . . . . . . .47 

Egyptian Baskets . 48 

Conventional Ornament . . . . . . . . .50 

Symbolical Figures ......... 53 

Hagar and Ishmael 55 — - 

Flower Ornament ........... 57 

Group of Flowers .......... 60 

Ruth and Boaz . » . 61- — 

Censers ............ 66 

The Wooing of Rebekah 69-- 

Tobias and Sara 72 

The Marriage Feast at Cana ....... 75 

The Bridegroom .77 

Bouquet of Roses 78 

Musical Instruments .......... 79 

Wedding Procession ......... 81 

Group of Musical Instruments 83 

' ' Tecy Wife shall be as a Fruitful Vine " .... 85 

Flower Ornament .......... 87 

Jealousy ........... 89-- 

Vignette 91 

The Star in the East ......... 93 

Innocence ............ 94 

Chapel of the Nativity at Bethlehem . . . . . 96 

Simeon and Anna . . . . . . . . . . 97 — 

Shrine of the Annunciation at Nazareth 99 

Bethlehem ............ 100 

Conventional Ornament . . . . . . . . 101 

Mother and Child 103 

Turtle Dove. 105 



LIST OF ILLUSTKATIONS. XV 

Page 

The Offering . . . . 107 -~ 

Flower Panel .......... 110 

CoRiNTHLiN Games 112 

Wrestlers ........... 113 

Wreaths of Oak and Olive . . 115 

The Patriarch 1 it- 
Conventional Ornament . . - 120 

"'Suffer Little Children to come unto Me" . . . . 122 

•' The Angel, which redeemed me from all Evil, bless the Lads ! " . 123 — 
Two Pages of the Samaritan Pentateuch . . . . . 127 

The Book, or Roll in its Case 131 

AVriting on Sticks .......... 133 

The Pharaoh of the Nile . . . . . . . .135— 

Samaritan Copy of the Law 137 

Mediaeval Bibles . . . . . . . . , .138 

Egyptian Writing Implements ....... 140 

Floaver Ornament . . . . . . . . . .141 

Seals and Signets 143 

Bethany 144 

A Carpenter's Shop in Modern Nazareth 146 

Crossing the Desert . . . . . . . . . .148 

The Sisters of Bethany . . . . . . . . 151- 

Eastern Landscape . . . . . . . . . .153 

Side Ornament .......... 154 

The Hebrew Nurse 156 

A Hill Town 158 

Head-Piece 159 

Assy'rians feasting ......... 160 

Romans at Table 160^ 

Egyptian Tables . . . . . . . . . . 161 

Flower Panel . . . . . . . . . . .164 

Assyrian Bronze Knives 167 

Egyptian Cooks 167 

•'How often would I have gathered thy Children together ",. 169 

Assyrians hunting . . . . . . . . . .171--- 

Hunting Wild Bulls 173 

Sea of Galilee 175\ 

Jordan ............ 179^^ 

Olive-Jars ............ 182 

Side Ornament 183 

The Grapes of Eshcol ......... 185\ 

Cedars of Lebanon 189v 

Greek Drinking-Cups . . . . . . . . .191 



XVI LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Page 

Assyrian Entertainment ' 193r- 

Tree of the "Apples op Sodom" . . . . . . . 197 — 

Date-Palms ........... 19SJ 

Fruit-Piece 202 

Head-Piece 203 

The Fringed Garment 204 

The Phylactery .......... 205 

Palms 208 

Horned Head-Dresses . . . . • . . . . . 209 
The Site of Babylon . . . . . . . . .211 — 

Veils 213 

Egyptian Shoes 214 

The Prodigal's Return. . . . . . . . . 215---, 

Sandals • . 218 

Earrings and Nose- Jewels . . . . . . . . 219 

Egyptian Jewelry . . . . . . . . ... 220 

Egyptian Bracelet 221 

Mirrors 222 

Ornament . . . . . 224 

"The Pearl of the East," — Damascus ...... 226 

Oriental Barber .......... 227 

Egyptian Head-Dresses ......... 229 

Side Ornament 231 

Altar of Incense .......... 233 

Antique Vases .......... 234 

Greek and Roman Alabastra ........ 239— 

The Fountain in the Court ........ 243-- 

By the Nile 245 

Ewer and Basin . . . . . . • . . . 246 

Supposed Scene op the Transfiguration ...... 247 

Roman Mirror and Vessels ........ 248 

Fig in Flower and Fruit . . . 250 

Group of Flowers . . 251 

Altar Panel ........... 253 

Moonlight on the Nile . 254 

Prayer in the Garden . . . . . . . . '. 256 

Conventional Ornament . . . . . . . . 258 

Earthen Divining Bowl op Babylon 262 

ZiON 264 

The Flight into Egypt ......... 265^-. 

In the Stable at Bethlehem ....... 269^ 

Unleavened Bread . . . . . . . . . .274 

Altar Panel ........... 275 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. xvii 

Page 

The Way of the Cross at Jerusaxem ...... 276 

Dawn 281 

The Mountain of the Scapegoat ....... 283 

Ecce Homo! 285 

Passion-Flower 287 

Gloria in Excelsis !......... 292 

Ancient Stringed Instruments 293 

"Strike the Cymbals". . . . . ■ . . . . 294 

Choir of Angels .......... 295 

Egyfiiax Cymbals 297 

The Timbrel 298 

Sunrise ............ 299 

"God loveth a Cheerful Giver" 301- 

"If thine Enemy hunger, feed him" ...... 305- 

Samaritan Coins .......... 309 

The Shekel of the Sanctuary . . . . . . . 310 

Tne Sower 312 

Egyptiatst Carts .......... 314 

Peacock of the Old Testament . . . . . . .315 

Ploughs, Yokes, and Goad . . 318 

Threshing-Floor . . . . . . . . . .321 

Cedars of Lebanon 323 

A Vineyard ........... 325 

Mount of Olives, and Garden op Gethsemane . . ; . 329-" 

Sheep and Shepherd .......... 332 

Flocks and Herds reposing ........ 334 

Syrian Shepherd-Dog ......... 335 

Fat-Tailed Sheep 336 

A Sheepfold ........... 337 

The Good Shepherd 339 

Syrian Goat ........... 340 

Four-Horned Eam 341 

Marking Cattle .......... 343- 

Camels Equipped for the Desert 346 

The Desert, from the Wells of Moses ...... 347- 

Thistle 349 

Lassoing Wild Asses . 351~ 

Cactus 354 

Jacob's Well . 357- 

Solomon's Pools . . . 361- 

•' As the Hart panteth after the Water Brooks " . . 363 

The Healed Waters of Jericho . . ... . 365 

Ancient Sun-Dials 367 



xvm LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 

PAGE 

" GrO, WASH IN THE PoOL OF SiLOAM ! " 370 

Panel 373 

" In A Pleasant Land" 375 

The Bmo of the Tombs ......... 377 

"That I may die in mine own City" . . . . . . 378 

Rock-Tombs in Syria oSO 

Tomb of David . 381 

At the Tombs . 384 

Released ........... 387 

Panel 390 

Rachel's Tomb 393 

The Wailing-Place : Wall of Jerusalem . . . . .396 

Tear-Bottles 397 

Repose ............ 401 





Home-Life im the Bible. 




■^ 



Home-life in the Bible. 



I. 



HABITATIONS AND HOMES. 






'N treating of Home-Life in the Bible, that first glorious 
home in Eden, whose " Builder and Maker was God," 
must be left to the sanctified imagination, to be spirit- 
^^ ually discerned, — a vision of such supernal beauty 
that any attempt to depict it would be equally presump- 
tuous and futile. It is not,- then, the home of the once 
sinless pair Avhom God placed in His garden, Avith which Ave 
have to do, but the dwelling-places of their descendants, who, 
inheriting the consequences of the primal sin, inherited also, 
through the Divine mercy, the saving impulse of domestic love 



HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 



and co-habitation. It is our purpose to follow these, by the light 
of Scripture record and research, into the humble homes of a 
primitive people, whose needs were as simple as those of the 
beasts of the field or the fowls of the au*. 

The first plain assertion in the Bible suggestive of permanent 
habitations, clustered together for mutual convenience and secur- 
ity, is that Cain " builded a city, and called the name of the city 
after the name of his son, Enoch " (Gen. iv. 1 7). To reach any 
idea, however vague, of what is meant by a " city " in this primi- 
tive period, we must ignore all modern thought or experience. 
Such a settlement was certainly nothing more than a few tents 
or rude huts, where families were drawn together by ties of 

blood ; or who 
for their agricul- 



tural or pastoral 
pursuits were at- 
tracted to a fa- 
vorable locality ; 
or for mutual 
defence against 
neighboring 
clans ; or, most 
probably, for all 
these considera- 
tions combined. 
For additional protection, a certain area around these habitations 
would be enclosed by a ditch and a stone hedge or wall, and so 
become a " fenced city." It was such a city that Cain built, for 
we are told that in the Oriental idiom to " build " a city means also 
to " fortify " or " fence " it ; such the cities in which the A vims 
dwelt (Deut. ii. 23), — the word " Hazerim " in this text (trans- 
lated "town" and "village" in others) meaning more correctly 
the temporary camping-grounds of wandering tribes, with a rude 
stone wall hastily thrown up for protection against wild beasts and 
marauders. So the tribes of Gad and Reuben, and the half-tribe 
of Manasseh, refusing to go over the river Jordan with the rest of 




AN ANCIENT STRONGHOLD. 




.iif 



;/il 'l''A iJtijJiiuUitliMllllMlllili 



HABITATIONS AND HOMES. 



Israel, said to Moses : " We will build sheepfolds here for our 
cattle, and cities for our little ones ; " " They shall dwell in the 
fenced cities, because of the inhabitants of the land ; " " Our little 
ones, our wives, our flocks, and all our cattle, shall be there in the 
cities of Gilead" (Num. xxxii. 16, 17, 26). It is easy to imagine 
what sort of " fenced cities " these husbands and fathers would 
build for the protection of their families and substance, while they 
" passed over, armed before the Lord, into the land of Canaan." 

Very different, however, were the cities of the Canaanites, of 
which the children of Israel were going on, by Divine appoint- 
ment, to take possession, — " great and goodly cities," said Moses, 
" which thou buildedst not, and houses full of all good things, 
which thou filledst not, and wells digged, which thou diggedst 
not, vineyards and 
olive - trees , which 
thou plantedst not " 
(Deut. vi. 10, 11). 
Even at the early 
period when Abra- 
ham came into Ca- 
naan, there were 
already many large 
towns, mentioned 
by name in the 
Book of Genesis : 
Sodom, Gomorrah, 
Zeboim, Admah, 
Hebron, and Da- 
mascus — which is 
almost certainly the 
oldest city in the world. It is probable that these towns were all 
walled, if not fortified ; in the Book of Joshua we read of at least 
six hundred similar places taken by the Israelites, who di-ove the 
inhabitants before them out of the land. It is supposed that the 
high walls of even the fortified cities were not altogether of 
stone, but of some combustible materials, since the prophet Amos 




A WALLED TOWN. 



HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 



predicts of "Gaza," of " Tyrus," of "Teman" and " Eabbah," 
that the Lord " will send a fire on the wall . . . which shall 
devour the palaces thereof" (Amos i. 7, 10, 12, 14). The gates 
of a walled city were very imposing structures, rendered doubly 
secure by heavy plates of iron or brass, and bars : when St. Peter 
was delivered by an angel from the prison in Jerusalem, " they 
came unto the iron gate that leadeth unto the city, which opened 
of his own accord, and they went out" (Acts xii. 10) ; the Psalm- 
ist sings of the " wonderful works" of God: "For He hath 
broken the gates of brass, and cut the bars of iron in sunder" 
{cvii. 16) ; and Isaiah declares the word of the Lord to Cyrus : " I 
wiU go before thee, and make the crooked places straight : I will 
break in pieces the gates of brass, and cut in sunder the bars of 
iron" (xlv. 2). One of the wonderful exhibitions of Samson's 
miraculous gift of personal strength is recorded in this connection, 
of his exploit in the city of Gaza, the scene of his tragic end : 

he " arose at midnight, and took 
the doors of the gate of the 
city, and the two posts, and 
went away with them, bar and 
all, and put them upon his 
shoulders, and carried them up 
to the top of a hill that is before 
Hebron" (Judg. xvi. 3). The 
city gates were places of popu- 
lar concourse, judgment-seats, 
halls of debate, and general 
trading exchanges; the large 
vaulted recesses in the gate- 
ways of ancient Assyrian cities 
are still used as shops for the 
sale of produce ; and Elisha, prophesying deliverance from a 
prevailing famine, alludes to this custom : " To-morrow, about this 
time, shall a measure of fine flour be sold for a shekel, and two 
measures of barley for a shekel, in the gate of Samaria " (2 Kings 
vii. 1). Boaz went " up to the gate, and sat him down there. 




A CITY Cr VTE. 



HABITATIONS AND HOMES. 9 

. , . And he took ten men of the elders of the city, and said, 
Sit ye do\vn here ; and they sat down," at the time he pur- 
chased the field from Naomi, and with it the young widow of 
Mahlon, her son, to be his wife (Ruth iv. 1, 2). 

City gates were always supplied Avith one tower, often with 
two, for observation in time of war : as they were closed at sunset, 
there was a small, low gate in one side of the massive doors left 
open somewhat later for the accommodation of belated travellers. 
Some commentators find a reference to this little door in the 
words of our Saviour : " It is easier for a camel to go through 
the eye of a needle, than for a rich man to enter into the 
kingdom of God" (Matt. xix. 24); but there is, perhaps, a less 
obscure allusion to both of these gates of a city, in His solemn 
exhortation : " Enter ye in at the strait gate : for wide is the gate, 
and broad is the way, that leadeth to destruction, and many there 
be which go in thereat : because strait is the gate, and narrow is 
the way, which leadeth unto life, and few there be that find it " 
(Matt. vii. 13, 14). 

The streets of these ancient towns were both crooked and 
narrow ; in some of them — as in Alexandria, Cairo, Jerusalem, 
and Damascus to-day — two loaded camels could not pass each 
other, and the houses at a certain elevation almost touched from 
opposite sides. 

To return to the dwellings in the primitive cities or camping- 
grounds of the Israelites, it is written of Jabal, the seventh 
generation after iVdam, that " he was the father of such as dwell 
in tents." It seems reasonable, therefore, to suppose that caves in 
the earth, or frail huts made of mud or the boughs of trees, were 
the earliest dwellings known to the human family. We may 
certainly claim to discover one clan or tribe of " cave-dwellers " 
in the Horites (Gen. xiv. 6), whose name indicates them that 
dwell " in the cliffs of the valleys, in caves of the earth, and in 
the rocks " (Job xxx. 6) : they were the aboriginal inhabitants of 
the sandstone and granite mountain-district of Seir, Avhere their 
wonderful subterranean dwellings are still to be seen, and afford 
shelter to a humble race of shepherds and their flocks. But 



10 



HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 



usually, it would seem that caves were used rather as places of 
temporary refuge or concealment, than as habitations ; though they 
certainly oifered many advantages — such as warmth and shelter 
from storm in winter, and coolness in summer — over the primi- 
tive hut or tent. The calcareous ranges of the Bible lands 

afforded such retreats in great 
abundance ; and where Na- 
ture was less hospitable, they 
were artificially hewn in the 
rocky sides of the mountains. 
Thus, we are told of the con- 
quered Israelites, that, " be- 
cause of the Midianites the 
children of Israel made them 
the dens which are in the 
mountains, and caves, and 
strong holds " ( Judg. vi. 2) ; 
so Lot " feared to dwell in 
Zoar ; and he dwelt in a 
cave, he and his two daugh- 
ters " (Gen. xix. 30) ; and 
in the later times of the apostles, those " of whom the world was 
not worthy : they wandered in deserts, and in mountains, and in 
dens and caves of the earth " (Heb- xi. 38). 

The familiar tent seems to us a much more agreeable dwell- 
ing : it was formed by setting poles in the ground, over which 
were stretched rude coverings, at first of skins, but after the 
process of weaving became common, of cloths made of camel's 
or goat's hair. Keference is made in the Song of Solomon to 
the tents covered with cloth made of black goat's hair by the 
descendants of the Ishmaelitish Kedar : "I am black, but 
comely, O ye daughters of Jerusalem, as the tents of Kedar, as 
the curtains of Solomon " (i. 5) ; and Isaiah eloquently magnifies 
the power of the Almighty, " that stretcheth out the heavens as 
a curtain, and spreadeth them out as a tent to dwell in " (xl. 22). 
The edges of the tent-covers were furnished with leather loops, 




CAVE DWELLINGS. 



HABITATIONS AND HOMES. 



11 



to which were attached the cords of the tent, and these were 
fastened to the ground by means of iron or wooden pins. It was 
with one of these "nails of the tent" that Jael overcame Sisera, 
the great captain of king Jabin's army ; and of her, Deborah and 
Barak sang : " Blessed above women shall Jael the wife of 
Heber the Kenite be ; blessed shall she be above women in 
the tent. She put her hand to the nail, and her right hand 
to the workmen's hammer; and with the hammer she smote 
Sisera. At her feet he bowed, he fell, he lay down : at her 
feet he bowed, he fell : where he bowed, there he fell down 
dead" (Judg. V. 24-27). 




Tents were of various shapes and sizes, requiring from one 
to nine poles : they could be divided into separate apartments by 
means of curtains, and the ground floor was covered with mats 
or skins ; as of the Assyrian's tent, it is written that Judith's 
maid " Avent and laid soft skins on the ground for her over 
against Holofernes, which she had received of Bagoas for her 
daily use, that she might sit and eat upon them" (Jud. xii. 15). 
Wooden pegs driven into the poles of the tent answered all 



12 



HOME-LIFE IN THE BJBLE 



the domestic uses which are supplied to-day by wardrobes and 
closets ; upon them were hung the wearing-apparel, the weapons 
for war or the chase, implements of husbandry, and the rude 
cooking-utensils in daily use. The door of the tent consisted 
of a heavy curtain of cloth, or a fold of the tent-cover, which 
might be raised at pleasure. Abraham " sat in the tent-door in 
the heat of the day," when the Lord appeared to him in the 
plains of Mamre, with the promise of that "seed" in which 
"shall all the nations of the earth be blessed" (Gen. xviii. 1); 
and in those days of the Exodus of Israel, " all the people rose 

up and worshipped, every 
man in his tent-door," 
while " the Lord spake 
unto Moses face to face, 
as a man speaketh unto 
his friend" (Exod. xxxiii. 
10, 11). Is it any won- 
der, when Balaam looked 
from the top of Peor upon 
such an encampment of 
the hosts of the Lord, — 
" Israel abiding in his 
tents according to their 
AN ENCAMPMENT. tribcs," — that " the Spirit 

of God came upon him," 
and that " he took up his parable and said : How goodly are 
thy tents, O Jacob, and thy tabernacles, O Israel! As the val- 
leys are they spread forth, as gardens by the river's side, as 
the trees of lign-aloes which the Lord hath planted, and as 
cedar-trees beside the waters" (Num. xxiv. 5, 6). 

This period, when the twelve tribes dwelt in tents, was of so 
much importance in their national history that at its expiration, 
on their entrance into " a peaceable habitation, and in sure 
dwellings, and in quiet resting-places," in the land promised to 
their fathers, God commanded them to keep the memorial 
Feast of Tabernacles forever: "Ye shall dAvell in booths seven 




HABITATIONS AND HOMES. 



13 



days . . . that your generations may know that I made the 
childi-en of Israel to dwell m booths when I brought them out 
of the land of Egypt " (Lev. xxiii. 40-43). 

Building materials are first described in the Bible in the 
account given by Moses of a journey undertaken by the descend- 
ants of Noah, when " they found a plain in the land of Shinar ; 
and they dwelt there. And they said one to another, Go to ! let 




us make brick, and burn them thoroughly. And they had brick 
for stone, and slime had they for mortar. And they said, Go to ! 
let us build us a city, and a tower, whose top may reach unto 
heaven" (Gen. xi. 2-4). This refers to the building of the 
famous Tower of Babel, of which, according to scientific travel- 
lers, there are three stupendous ruins that present equal claims 
to the distinction of having been the original of that presump- 



14 



HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 



tuous structure. One of these is described as " an oblong mass, 
composed chiefly of unbaked brick, rising from the plain to a 
height of one hundred and ten feet : " from which we may con- 
clude that sun-dried bricks, cemented with mortar, bitumen, or 
simple clay, after the ancient method, were among the earliest 
building materials known ; and frail as they appear, they are 
proved to be much more lasting than marble or granite. The 
superb palaces of the kings of Nineveh, and the Nimrood pyra- 
mid, were constructed chiefly of this crude brick ; but the Baby- 
lonian edifices of importance were faced with bricks that had 
been burned or highly glazed. Egyptian bricks were made of 
clay moistened with water, with or without the admixture of 
straw, chopped barley, or stubble. AU 
ordinary buildings — houses, tombs, fort- 
resses, and even temples and pyra- 
S> IVfcrLiJt]/ ]'-Wi ' ^ mids — were constructed of this rude 
.. V :^l?-l,-bl;i\^TT"E!l» 'f\ material: stone was used principally for 
the large public works, such as reser- 
voirs and quays. It was customary to 
stamp Egyptian and Babylonian bricks 
with the name of the reigning sove- 
reign. The pictorial monuments of 
Egypt represent the process of the 
manufacture of bricks, which Avas a 
royal monopoly : a shallow pit receives the mud or clay with 
the proper proportion of chopped straw, which is then mixed 
by the feet of the laborer, a very severe and fatiguing task. 
Nahum, foretelling the miserable straits of Nineveh, calls 
upon her to defend herself against her enemies : " Draw thee 
waters for the siege, fortify thy strong holds ; go into clay, and 
tread the mortar, make strong the brick-kiln" (iii. 14). An 
ancient fresco from Thebes depicts the toil of the oppressed 
Hebrews in this special handicraft, in which the taskmasters 
with their whips are conspicuous objects of interest. Egyptian 
burnt brick is of a comparatively late date. In mountainous 
and rocky regions, where it was difficult to procure clay, hewn 




BRICK, WITH NAME OF NEB 
UCHADNEZZAR. 



HABITATIONS AND HOMES. 



15 



or irregularly broken stone was used for public edifices, while 

the better class of private dwellings were built of blocks of 

light, porous limestone, cut with a rude saw. Amos speaks 

of the oppressors of the poor, the receivers of bribes, in his 

time, who had "built houses of hewn stone," representing 

them as dwellings of unusual luxury (Amos v. 11); David 

had prepared for the Temple " all manner of precious stones, 

and marble stones in abundance" 

(1 Chron. xxix. 2) ; the palace 

of the Persian king was upheld 

by " pillars of marble " (Esth. i. 6) ; 

Ahab made a " house of ivory" (1 

Kings xxii. 39) ; David sings of 

"the ivory palaces" (Ps. xlv. 8); 

Amos speaks of " the winter house 

Avith the summer house ; and the 

houses of ivory, and the great 

houses " (iii. 15) ; while Jeremiah 

describes by inference " a wide 

house and large chambers," with 

windows, " ceiled with cedar and painted with vermilion " 

(xxii. 14). These few allusions, taken at random, show that 

there were spacious and costly dwellings in ancient Palestine, 

other than the royal residences ; but it is equally true that the 

homes of the lower classes were mere hovels made of mud, 

or rude brick, or heaps of stones, destitute of the simplest 

conveniences. 

There were several sorts of these clay houses, and those of the 
unburnt brick ; others were constructed of a framework of light 
wood or wicker, overlaid with a thick plastering of mud ; and in 
others the walls were made of layer upon layer of mud, which, 
having been rammed into moulds, Avas placed in position to dry 
as the work proceeded. Such walls cannot stand against heavy 
rains, and require to be thickly coated with a " tempered 
moi-tar" of lime or sand; the prophet teaches a profound 
moral lesson by the figurative use of these familiar processes : 




MASONS OP ANCIENT EGYPT. 



16 



home-lifp: in the bible. 



" One built up a wall, and, lo ! others daubed it with untem- 
pered mortar. Say unto them which daub it M'ith untempered 
mortar, that it shall fall: there shall be an overflowing shower; 
and ye, O great hailstones, shall fall ; and a stormy wind shall 
rend it" (Ezek. xiii. 10, 11), 

It is easy to understand what a temptation these soft, pene- 
trable Avails offered to thieves : by means of any sharp instru- 
ment, or even a bit of wood, a man could make a hole in them 
without noise, and enlarge it to admit his body, by tearing away 

the clay and mortar. 

Job had these clay 

^i :^- walls in mind, when 

vr ^^^^ he wrote of the 

K t -^^^^-^ j thieves and assassins 

of his time : "In the 
dark, they dig through 
houses, which they 
had marked for them- 
selves in the day-time " 
(xxiv. 16); and our 
Lord refers indirectly 
to the same houses, 
Avhen He warns us of 
thieves that " break 
through {dig) and 
steal" (Matt. vi. 19). 
But whatever the materials . or mode of construction, there 
Avas no difference of opinion among these ancient builders as 
to the imperative necessity for a solid foundation. Job speaks, 
in a subtle figure, of "them that dwell in houses of clay, 
whose foundation is in the dust" (iv. 19) ; and it is literally true 
that none but the poorest would thus venture to build his house 
in the Holy Land. In the better class of habitations, it was 
usual to dig down to the solid rock for the foundation ; a 
precautionary measure made necessary by the steep mountain 
heights and deep valleys of the country, and the suddenly over- 




WHERE TmEVES BREAK iJIKOU(;rH 



HABITATIONS AND HOMES. 



17 



whelming storms in the rainy season, whose torrents uprooted 
trees, overturned rocks, and carried away houses, in their angry 
course. In the Saviour's parable of the two house-builders, 
there could surely have been no " hard saying " to the natives of 
Palestine : " Whosoever conieth to me, and heareth my sayings, 
and doetli them, I will show you to whom he is like : He is 
like a man which built a house, and digged deep, and laid the 
foundation on a rock ; and when the flood arose, the stream beat 
vehemently upon that house, and could not shake it ; for it was 
founded upon a rock. But he that heareth, and doeth not, is 




A GROUP OP DWELLINGS. 



like a man that without a foundation built a house upon the 
earth; against which the stream did beat vehemently, and 



immediately it fell ; and the ruin of that house was great " (Luke 
vi. 47-49). Not only floods, however, but the annual inunda- 
tions, especially of Egypt, made the foundation of peculiar im- 
portance : in the land of the Nile, to this day, there is no security 
for towns, walls, structures of any sort, except by erecting them 
upon solid and enduring bases, natural or artificial. 

A feature of the private dwellings of all ancient Oriental cities 



18 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

was the extreme and almost rude simplicity studiously affected 
for their external appearance. A succession of blank walls met 
the eye of the passer-by as he threaded his way along the narrow 
street, relieved only by the doors, some projecting windows, 
closely latticed, at a considerable elevation, and the wide stair- 
cases leading straight up to the flat roof, — the houses differing in 
size and the expensiveness of material, but all equally forbidding 
and plain. 

We are apt to give undue prominence to the hemispherical 
roof in any notions we conceive of these ancient cities ; whereas 
it is comparatively a recent invention, adopted by the Saracens 
for their mosques and other public buildings, and adhered to by 
their descendants. The only dome that can claim the precedent 
of antiquity is a sort of conical roof, peculiar to the rural districts, 
that also serves as a chimney for a rude fu-eplace in the middle 
of the hut it covers : there is an entire village of these curious 
little mud houses not far from Aleppo. The ancient sculptures 
preserve specimens of Assyrian houses with domes, built at least 
as early as 750 B. C. But the Orientals have, for very evident 
reasons, always given the preference to the flat roof for their 

private residences ; and 
^^^j g^^ggzf^gl^^^ it must have been gen- 

erally adopted at an early 
period by the Hebrews, 
since its mode of con- 
struction constituted a 
point of legal enactment 
in their eminently pro- 
tective code : " When 
thou buildest a new 
1^ house, then thou shalt 

BATTLEMENTED HOUSE. make a battlement for 

thy roof, that thou bring 
not blood upon thine house, if any man fall from thence " (Deut. 
xxii. 8). This battlement, or parapet, was usually about breast- 
high, — somewhat lower, perhaps, betAveen neighboring houses, to 




HABITATIONS AND HOMES. 



19 




divide roof from roof. One would think that few householders 
could be so reckless as to leave a housetop unguarded, where 
it was the daily resort of even the children of the family ; 
especially as in the diy, hot summers it was also the general 
sleeping-place for all but the very young or the aged — the 
servants lying in the open court below. A certain part of the 
roof over the allij/eh, or upper 
chamber (of Avhich Ave shall 
speak presently), elevated 
above and distinct from the 
main housetop, was the pre- 
ferred place for private devo- 
tions — the pious Israelite, 
like Daniel, reviving his heart 
with at least a longing look 
toward the Holy House at 
Jerusalem ; so, the Apostle 
Peter, lodging in Joppa Avith 
Simon the tanner, " went up 
upon the housetop to pray 

about the sixth hour," and there beheld in a vision the Calling 
of the Gentiles (Acts x. 9). It was also *a place of conference, as 
" Samuel communed with Saul upon the top of the house ; " and 
a resort after the heat of the day, for family groups to sit or walk, 
enjoying the cool air, as was the custom of the Psalmist, when at 
eventide " David arose from off his bed, and walked upon the roof 
of the king's house" (2 Sam. xi. 2); and so Nebuchadnezzar, the 
king, walked upon his palace, and boasted himself of the "great 
Babylon" that he had builded by the " might of his power, and for 
the honor of his majesty " (Dan. iv. 30). In houses where windows 
were sparingly introduced and seldom opened, it was natural that 
the housetop should be the place for sight-seeing (especially of the 
women and children), when something of public interest or excite- 
ment or danger was to be seen in the streets. .» Thus, when the 
Prophet laments the invasion by the Persian hosts, and eloquently 
apostrophizing his people under a figure, exclaims: "What aileth' 



i^ 



PRAYER ON THE HOUSE-TOP. 



20 



HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 



thee now, that thou art wholly gone up to the housetops'? thou 
that art full of sths, a tumultuous city!" (Isa. xxii. 1, 2), — he 
depicts the spirited scene of a community shaken to its centre by 
an impending calamity. In such crises of public peril and com- 
motion, the housetop was not only a place of observation, but one 
of comparative safety, to which the family fled for refuge or 
escape ; for where the dAvellings were contiguous, as in large 
cities, it was practicable to traverse entire streets from roof to roof, 

and thus reach the 
city walls or a locali- 
ty remote from the 
imminent danger. 
Our Lord, warning 
His disciples of the 
approaching destruc- 
tion of Jerusalem, 
admonished them: 
"Let him which is 
on the housetop not 
come down to take 
any thing out of his 
house " (Matt. xxiv. 

The house w i f e 
found the roof in- 
valuable for various 
domestic purposes: 
here the clothes were hung to dry, cotton was bleached, wool 
and flax dried; while the fruits, vegetables, and grain, to be 
ripened or preserved for winter use, were here freely exposed to 
the wholesome operations of sun and air. In this connection, 
the reader will recall the hiding of the Hebrew spies by Eahab, 
in her house in the city of Jericho, when she " brought them up 
to the roof of the house, and hid them with the stalks of flax, 
which she had laid in order upon the roof" (Josh. ii. 6). Tents 
and booths were frequently erected on the roof, for protection 




HOOFS AND BATTLEMENTS. 



HABITATIONS AND HOMES. 



21 



from the sun by day, and the moon or heavy dews by night ; or 
on some reUgious occasion, such as the Feast of Tabernacles, 
when the Israelites commemorated their dwelling in tents during 
the forty years' wandering in the wilderness ; 
or in seasons of family mourning, as when ® 

Judith " made her a tent upon the top of her ^jSy 

house," in wliich to afflict herself for the death »M 

of her husband Manasses (Jud. viii. 5). 

Roofs were commonly constructed of large 
beams of timber — the tall poplar being pre- 
ferred for this purpose ; and of rude joists sup- 
portmg smaller beams or brushwood, placed 
close together to receive a thick layer of 
mortar or clay, which requhed to be packed 
hard with a stone roller, — a process which 
needed to be repeated after every heavy rain. 
The light covering of clay and gravel made a 
leaky roof the frequent annoyance of the 
inmates of an Oriental house ; and two allu- 
sions to this are found in the Book of Proverbs, 
both in a strictly domestic connection and to 
the same effect : " The contentions of a wife 
are a continual droppmg ; " "A continual 
dropping in a very rainy day and a contentious 
woman are alike" (xx. 13, xxvii. 15). A 
cement of oil and clay was sometimes em- 
ployed to render the roof impervious to water, 
but the roller could seldom be dispensed with. 

The beaten earth, often thoroughly soaked 
by the ram, afforded a starting-place for the 
growth of grass, which, however, was again 
and again stamped out by the trampling of 
feet and the frequent use of the roller ; so that its brief and strug- 
gling existence was aptly employed as a figure by the Psalmist in 
denunciation of the enemies of his God : " Let them be as the 
grass upon the housetops, which withereth afore it groweth up : 



22 



HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 



wherewith the mower filleth not his hand, nor he that bindcth 
sheaves his bosom" (cxxix. 6, 7). 

There are various opinions among interpreters of the text, as 



to the method employed by the four men who brought 



sick 



of the palsy " to Jesus : " And when they could not come nigh 
unto him for the press, they uncovered the roof where he was ; 
and when they had broken it up, they let down the bed wherein 
the sick of the palsy lay" (Mark ii. 3, 4); but it is not difficult 
to discern the details of the sacred narrative when we consider 
that the houses of Capernaum were very low, and the flat roofs 
accessible by a stairway from the street or court ; and that it was 
a matter of small moment to remove a portion of the rudely 
constructed roof (as is still done by the peasants in the villages 
of Palestine, to let down grain, straw, or other commodities into 
the house), and to lower the sick man by holding the corners of 
his " couch," or padded quilt. 

The distinctive mode of constructing an Oriental house of 

the better class, was in the 
form of a cloister, — the apart- 
ments surrounding a hollow 
square, which was a court- 
yard, open to the sky. The 
houses of the wealthy had 
two or three of these courts : 
some in the ancient city of 
Damascus have seven, while 
the royal palaces had even 
more. These courts were 
paved with rare marbles, or 
laid out in gardens, with a 
fountain or cistern in the 
centre for family use, wherever the supply of water warranted 
a luxury so much esteemed by an Oriental. Where there 
was a court exclusively for . the pleasure of the ladies of the 
house, and connected with their apartments, it was customary to 
provide a bathing-place in it for the use of the women and chil- 




COUR'I 



HABITATIONS AND HOMES. 



23 



dren : such a bath was in the " fair garden joining unto " the 
house of the wealthy Joacim, husband of the chaste Susanna 
(History of Susanna, i. 15) ; and in the court-yard of the house 
of Uriah the Hittite, at Jerusalem (2 Sam. xi. 2). On festive 
occasions of private entertainment, the court was elegantly deco- 
rated, covered with gay awnings, and furnished with carpets 
and mats. Mention is made in the Book of Esther of a superb 
royal feast given by Ahasuerus, " in the court of the garden of 
the king's palace, where Avere white, green, and blue hangings, 




THE COURT OF THE GARDEN. 



fastened with cords of fine linen and purple to silver rings and 
pillars of marble ; the beds were of gold and silver, upon a pave- 
ment of red, and blue, and white, and black marble " (i. 5, 6). 
The Greeks and Romans erected altars to the household gods in 
the court-yards of their houses. 

A veranda projected from the inner walls of the house, some 
nine or ten feet in width and surrounding the court usually on 
all four sides ; the roof of this veranda — which, especially in 
Greek and Roman houses, was often paved with tiles — consti- 



24 



HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 




tuted a balcony for the apartments on the second floor, and was 
enclosed by a balustrade of stone or lattice work, — the Avhole 
supported by pillars, according to the Proverb : " Wisdom hath 
builded her house, she hath hewn out her seven pillars." All the 
rooms of the house opened upon this veranda, or the balconv 
above ; in one corner of the court a staircase led up to the second 

story to the apartments com- 
_^ monly assigned to the women ; 

^^Ife"^ _ and thence to the flat grav- 

^^ elled roof. Over the porch, 

or gateway of the house, 
there was usually a building 
one story higher than the 
main structure, the top of 
which was still more secluded 
than the roof proper : this 
contained one or two rooms 
that were set apart for guest- 
chambers, or, when large, 
for special entertainments. 
This alliyeh was almost always provided with a separate staircase 
of wood or solid stone leading directly to the street, and which 
was the resort of flocks of tame pigeons or doves that built then- 
nests under its cosey shelter: thus the mystic Song includes 
among the heralds of spring the familiar " voice of the turtle ; " 
and the Bridegroom of the same sacred Pastoral addresses the 
Bride as one of these cherished family pets : " O my dove ! that 
art in the clefts of the rock, in the secret places of the stairs " 
(ii. 12, 14). 

The " little chamber " built on the wall by the " great woman" 
of Shunem for the prophet Elisha ; the " summer-parlor " of 
Eglon, king of Moab, from which Ehud escaped by a private 
stairway (Judg. iii. 20); the "loft where abode" the prophet 
Elijah with the widow of Zarephath, and where, in answer to his 
prayer, the soul of her child returned to him again (1 Kings 
xvii. 19); the "chamber over the gate" of the city, to which 



OUTER STAIRCASE. 



HABITATIONS AND HOMES. ^O 

King David went up in his bereavement, weeping, and crying with 
a loud voice, " O my son Absalom ! O Absalom, my son, my 
son!" (2 Sam. xviii. 33, xix. 4); the "upper chamber" in the 
house in Joppa wherein the dead body of Dorcas was laid by 
the wddows, and restored to life by St. Peter (Acts ix. 37); the 
'■'■ upper chamber in Troas," where there were " many lights," and 
where St. Paul preached until midnight (Acts xx. 8), — all 
probably refer to this particular part of a well-appointed Oriental 




A CHAMBER ON THE WALL. 



home. Two of these apartments mentioned in the New Testa- 
ment are endowed with associations of peculiar solemnity for 
Christians : the " large upper room furnished," in Jerusalem, in 
which the Lord ate the Passover with His apostles, and where He 
instituted the sacrament of the Holy Communion as a " perpetual 
memory of His death and sacrifice, until His coming again ; " and 
that " upper room," also in the sacred city, wherein we catch the 
final glimpse of the august Mother of Jesus, as she continued 



26 



HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 




EGYPTIAN LATTICED WINDOW. 



in prayer and supplication with the " women " and " with His 

brethren," after the glorious 
ascension of her Son (Acts 
i. 12, 13, 14). 

The " chambers over the 
gate " were commonly built so 
as to project beyond the origi- 
nal structure, and were sup- 
plied with windows overlooking 
the street. It was through 
the lattice of one of these 
Avindows in his upper cham- 
ber, that Ahaziah, king of 
Samaria, " fell down " and 
" died, according to the word 

of the Lord which Elijah had spoken " (2 Kings i. 2) ; and to such 

a one Jezebel, the proud widow of King Ahab, having " painted 

her face and tired her head," 

came and looked out " as 

Jehu entered in at the gate ; " 

but out of the same window 

looked her two or three 

eunuchs. And Jehu said, 

" Throw her down. So they 

threw her down " (2 Kings ix. 

30, 32, 33). In the triumph- 
ant " song of Deborah and 

Barak " we find another allu- 
sion to the latticed window, 

in the pathetic picture of the 

mother of the murdered war- 
rior watching for her son, as 

yet unconscious of her loss, 

while her companions be- windows. 

guile her impatience: " The 

mother of Sisera looked out at a window, and cried throuo;h the 




HABITATIONS AND HOMES. 27 

lattice, \^'^ly is his chariot so long in coming ? why tarry the 
wheels of his chariots ? Her wise ladies answered her ; yea, 
she retnrned answer to herself, Have they not sped I have 
they not divided the prey : to every man a damsel or two ; to 
Sisera a prey of divers colors, a prey of divers colors of needle- 
work, of divers colors of needlework on both sides, meet for the 
necks of them that take the spoil? So let all thine enemies 
perish, O Lord ! but let them that love him be as the sun when 
he goeth forth in his might" (Judg. v. 28-31). 

The entrance to such houses as have just been described was 
by a street door of heavy wood or stone, which was kept locked 
and in charge of a porter. These doors were not hung on 
hinges, but swung in sockets that were contrived in the lintel 
overhead and in the threshold ; a smaller gate was often cut in 
the door, which was easily opened, and more commonly used. 
The porter, usually a woman, was summoned with the " knocker," 
a large iron ring fastened on the outside ; but admittance was by 
no means granted until certain questions had been satisfactorily 
answered by the applicant. It was not until " she knew Peter's 
voice " that E,hoda, the porter at the gate of Mary's house, 
admitted him into the presence of those who had " made prayer 
without ceasing" for his release (Acts xii. 18, 14). But a 
greater than Peter speaks while He waits outside: "Behold, I 
stand at the door, and knock : if any man hear my voice, and 
open the door, I will come in to him, and will sup Avith him, and 
he with me " (Rev. iii. 20). And so the Church sings : " It is the 
voice of my beloved, that knocketh" (Song of Solomon, v. 2). 

This door, or " door of the gate," opened into the porch, 
which was provided with seats and constituted a sort of ante- 
chamber, as well as passage-way, to the court, and to the 
staircase that led to the upper floor. So jealous of privacy, 
however, were the inmates, that no view of the court could 
be obtained by the visitor in the act of entering, or by the 
casual passer-by ; for the door opening from the porch into 
the court was never directly opposite the street door. The 
porch of the palace of the High Priest was the place into 



28 



homp:-life in the bible. 



which St. Peter Avent out " and wept bitterly," at the fulfilment 
of the Lord's prophecy : " Before the cock crow twice, thou 
shalt deny me thrice." 

The doors of these ancient homes were secured by a lock, 
frequently depicted on Egyptian sculptures, that consisted of a 
long hollow bar of wood, made to slide easily back and forth into 




EGYPTIAN DOOR AND HINGES. 



a hole made for it in the door-post. Here it was fastened in its 
place by small bolts of iron that fell into holes bored for them in 
the top of the lock. A hole was made in the door, through 
which, when the door was unlocked from the outside, it was 
necessary to pass the hand and insert the key : a custom to which 
allusion is made in the Song of Songs, " My beloved put in his 



HABITATIONS AND HOMES. 



29 



hand by the hole of the door " (Solomon's Song, v. 4). The keys 
were large and clumsy, ordmarily of wood, and from six mches 
to two feet in length, with wire pins at the end Avith which to 
unfasten the lock ; in later times they were furnished with • 
handles of brass or even silver, ornamented with filagree work, 
^"ery ancient keys are described as shaped like a sickle and 
carried on the shoulder, particularly as a symbol of official 
authority, as referred to in the prophetic warning to Shebna, 
the corrupt treasurer of Hezekiah : " the key of the house of 
David will I lay upon his (Eliakim's) shoulder " (Isa, xxii. 22) ; 
and in Isa. ix. 6, where it is proclaimed of the coming Saviour 
that " the government shall be upon His shoulder ; " and where 
our Lord says to St. Peter: " I Avill give unto thee the keys 
of the kingdom of heaven" (Matt. xvi. 19). 

The doors of the inner chambers of palaces, and of the 
dAvellings of the wealthy, were 
also furnished with locks to 
secure personal privacy : thus 
when "Ehud went forth 
through the porch" from Eg- 
lon, king of Moab, " he shut 
the doors of the parlor upon 
him, and locked them ; " and 
the servants of the king, " hav- 
ing tarried till they were 
ashamed," " took a key, and 
opened them " (Judg. iii. 23, 
25). 

In the open country, where houses were exposed to the assaults 
of robbers, the gates were made very low, so as to prevent pred- 
atory bands of horsemen from entermg through the porch into 
the court-yard. The doors of city houses, also, were frequently 
made very low and unattractive, to divert the attention of covetous 
men in high places from the displays of wealth within. One of 
the Proverbs of Solomon warned the builder of his time, that 
" He that exalteth his gate seeketh destruction" (Prov. xvii. 19); 




E(jrlPrilN DOOR 



30 HOME-LIP^E IN THE BIBLE. 

by which he doubtless meant loss, not only from the professed 
marauders native to the country, but by the envious cupidity of 
high-handed men in power, who, attracted by the display of 
wealth, would not hesitate to enrich themselves by polite and 
" legal " methods, not altogether unfamiliar to later generations. 
Portal inscriptions were in use among the ancient Egyptians, 
who wrote not only the name of the resident, but some sentences 
of good import, upon the doors of their houses. The Jews of a 
very early period adopted a sort of phylactery for the house, in 
fulfilment of the command to keep the law of God always before 
thek eyes, by inscribing it upon the door-posts and gates of their 
houses : " Therefore shall ye lay up these my words in your heart 
and in your soul. And- thou shalt write them upon the door- 
posts of thine hou.se, and upon thy gates " (Deut. xi. 18, 20). 
Certain passages of Scripture were Avritten on parchment spe- 
cially prepared for the purpose, having the Hebrew character 
representing the name of the Almighty on the outside. When 
rolled up and placed within a metal cylinder called the 
" Mesusah," and hung at the right-hand door-post of every 
" clean " apartment in the house, all that could be seen of the 
writing was the Holy Name, exposed to view through an 
aperture in the case. This Name was touched by the finger, 
and the finger kissed, as the members of the family went in 
and out with some words of prayer. The Mesusah was 
significant of the Divine protection, this promise having special 
reference to it : " The Lord shall preserve thy going out and 
thy coming in, from this time forth, and even for evermore " 
(Ps. cxxi. 8). 

" The ' Mechilta,' an ancient Jewish commentary on the Book 
of Exodus, argues the efficacy of the Mesusah from the fact 
that since the destroying angel passed over the doors of Israel 
that bore the covenant-mark, a much higher value must attach to 
the Mesusah, which embodied the Name of the Lord no less 
than ten times, and was to be found in the dwellings of Israel 
day and night through all generations." It was believed to avert 
disease, and forbid the entrance of evil spirits. 



HABITATIONS AND HOMES. 



31 



There is occasional mention of hearths and chimneys in the 
Bible, but we must not confound these domestic arrangements in 
primitive times with those of our own day. The first mention 
of a hearth is Avhere Abraham, on the occasion of the visit of 
the angels, on the plains of Mamre, " hastened into the tent unto 
Sarah, and said, Make ready quickly three measures of fine meal, 
knead it, and make cakes upon the hearth " (Gen. xviii. 6) ; this 
" hearth " being the hot stones on Avhich bread was baked. The 
word generally signifies the portable furnace, 
or stove filled Avith burning coals, which is in ^_^ --_^ 

use for warming Eastern apartments to this 
day. Such was the hearth into Avhich King 
Jehoiakim threw the leaves of Jeremiah's 
prophecy . " Now the king sat in the winter 
house in the ninth month : and there was a 
ike on the hearth burning before him. And 
it came to pass, that when Jehudi had read 
three or four leaves, he cut it with the pen- 
knife, and cast it into the fire that was on the 
hearth, until all the roll was consumed in 
the fire that was on the hearth " ( Jer. xxxvi. 
22, 23). 

In the allusion to a chimney • " as the smoke 
out of the chimney " (Hos. xiii. 3), the same 
Hebrew word is employed that in other parts 
of Scripture is translated "• window." The 
smoke found its way out through the windows, 
or in some cases through holes constructed near the ceiling for 
that purpose. 

The "• leprosy of the house," so minutely described and pro- 
vided for in Lev. xiv. 34, is supposed to have been caused by the 
growth on the walls of two species of fungi, in reddish and 
greenish patches, very destructive and virulent in their effects, 
poisoning the air and producing disease. The admirable sani- 
tary laws that prevailed among the ancient Israelites are 
specially commendable in their application to these infected 




32 



HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 



buildings, which, in extreme cases, were commanded to be pulled 
down. 

It was customary to dedicate a new dwelling, — " What man 
is there that hath built a new house, and hath not dedicated it ? " 
(Deut. XX. 5), ■ — but with Avhat ceremonies does not appear ; 
probably a social entertainment resembling a modern house- 
warming, combined with devotional exercises. A house recently 
obtained by inheritance or purchase might also be dedicated, as 
well as granaries and barns, which could in an emergency be 
used as dwellings ; but this observance was not allowable for 
houses not convertible to family uses. The Thirtieth Psalm was 
composed, so the title runs, " at the dedication of the house of 
David ; " and we have a record of the great public rejoicing at 
the completion of the wall of the holy city in the time of Nehe- 
miah : " And at the dedication of the wall of Jerusalem they 
sought the Levites out of all their places, to bring them to Jeru- 
salem, to keep the dedication with gladness, both with thanks- 
givings, and with singing, with 
H cymbals, psalteries, and with 
I harps " (Neh. xii. 27) ; as well 
1 as at the dedication of the 
I Second Temple, of Avhicli it 
is recorded that Israel : " kept 
the dedication of this house 
of God with joy, and offered 
at the dedication of this house 
of God a hundred bullocks, 
two hundred rams, four hun- 
dred lambs ; and for a sin 
offering for all Israel, twelve 
he goats, according to the 
number of the tribes of Israel" (Ezra vi. 15, 16, 17). 

In the houses of the rich the woodwork was of olive, acacia, 
or cedar, and in the palaces, even the costly Indian sandalwood 
was introduced ; the window-frames and lattices were often elab- 
orately decorated with carving and mlaying, — a profuse veneer- 




EXTERIOR, DECORATION. 



HABITATIONS AND HOMES. 



33 



ing of ivory being the preferred extravagance in the reign of 
Solomon, who deprecatingly records of his own extensive archi- 
tectural achievements : " I builded me houses " (Eccles. ii. 4). 
But however curious and elegant the carvings, no reproduction 
of any living creature was permitted in the Jewish house. 
" So profound was the reli- 
gious prejudice of the people 
on this point, that the palace 
of Herod Antipas at Tiberias 
was destroyed by a mob be- 
cause it was decorated with 
representations of animals." 

The expression " ceiled 
houses " indicates the promi- 
nence given to the decoration 
of the ceiling, as described in 
Jeremiah (xxii. 14) : " ceiled 
Avith cedar, and painted with 
vermilion;" these were often 

supported by rows of pillars richly ornamented. The walls and 
ceilings of plainer dwellings were simply washed, with whitewash 
or some neutral tint, the rude woodwork being usually of syca- 
more, without ornamentation. 




SCULPTURED PILLARS 



II. 



FURNITURE AND UTENSILS. 




WATEK-POTS. 

OWEVEE, elaborate the interior arrangements and 
decorations of the more costly homes of the Bible, 
their appointments necessarily responded to the simple 
needs of a primitive race, and, except in royal houses, 
were comparatively meagre and insignificant. In the 
homes of the poor in cities, consisting of two or three 
small rooms, all that was required for the comfort of the family 
was a coarse carpet, or mat of goat's hair, for the floor of the 
principal apartment ; some thin mattresses and pillows, filled 




FURNITURE AND UTENSILS. 35 

with cotton or straw, to be spread on the floor at night ; a 
low stand, or only a sort of leather " crumb-cloth," for a dinner- 
table; the universal hand-mill, alluded to in Matt. xxiv. 41;- some 
dishes of rude pottery, wooden spoons, and a few plain cooking- 
utensils. 

The requisite conveniences for the daily use of the wealthy 
scarcely surpassed this inventory, except as to intrinsic value and 
personal luxury; even in the houses of the better class, the prin- 
cipal apartment or reception room in daily use was on the ground 
floor, and opened to the court, as already described : it was 
furnished at one end with a platform, ten or twelve inches higher 
than the floor, and perhaps three feet in width, which usually ex- 
tended around the three sides of that part of the room. This plat- 
form, or divan, was covered with carpets, or thick stuffs, sometimes 
of home manufacture, and was provided with cushions on which 
to sit or recline in Oriental fashion, — the corner being esteemed 
the seat of honor. Here the master of the house received and 
chatted with his guests ; or, if a Hebrew, in the privacy of the 
domestic circle, sat at meat, surrounded by his family, in all 
the blessedness of the literal fulfilment of the promise, dear to 
the pious heart: "Thou shalt eat the labor of thine hands: happy 
shalt thou be, and it shall be well with thee. Thy wife shall be 
as a fruitful vine by the sides of thine house : thy children like 
olive plants round about thy table" (Ps. cxxviii. 2, 3). 

At night, when too cool to sleep on the roof of the house, this 
large room was readily converted into a dormitory for the entire 
household, by spreading separate mattresses, with pillows and 
coverlets, at intervals on the cushioned platform and divans. In 
the light of this ancient custom we read more intelligently the 
parable, wherein the night-traveller would borrow bread of his 
friend : " And he from within shall answer and say, Trouble me 
not : the door is now shut, and my children are with me in bed ; 
I cannot rise and give thee " (Luke xi. 7), — the Greek expres- 
sion for " in bed " implying rather in the same room^ than in the 
same hed. 

In royal palaces, the king's bed was probably made on a much 



36 



HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 




more elevated platform, as we may infer from Elijah's message to 
the guilty Ahaziah : " Now therefore thus saith the Lord, Thou 
shalt not come down from that bed on which thou art gone up, 
but shalt surely die " (2 Kings i. 4) ; and from David's devout 
asseveration : " Surely I will not come into the tabernacle of my 
house, nor go up into my bed; I will 
not give sleep to mine eyes, or slumber 
to mine eyelids, until I find out a place 
for the Lord, a habitation for the 
mighty God of Jacob " (Ps. cxxxii. 3). 

The beds referred to in the miracles 
of healing, recorded in the New Testa- 
ment : the impotent man who " took 
up his bed and walked " (John v. 9) ; 
the " sick of the palsy," who obeyed 
the Divine command: "Arise, take up 
thy bed, and go unto thy house" (Matt. 
ix. 6) ; the paralytic, " borne of four " 
who " let down the bed" on which he 
lay "into the midst before Jesus" 
(Mark ii. 4; Luke v. 18); as well as 
the beds on Avhich the sick were laid 
in the streets of Jerusalem, " that at 
the least the shadow of Peter, passing 
by, might overshadow some of them " 
(Acts V. 15), — all these were the sim- 
ple mats or padded quilts in use 
among the common people, which had 
only to be rolled up, and carried on 
the shoulder by the restored invalids in 
question. 
At one end of the large room, furnished with the divan, there 
was a commodious closet, built expressly for the reception and 
storing of the bedding used at night : in very cold weather the 
beds miffht be laid for use within this enclosure, but this Avas 

o 

unusual. We read, that at the time of xlthahah's dreadful mas- 




FURNITURE AND UTENSILS. 37 

sacre of the seed royal, after her son Ahaziah's death : " Jehosh- 
eba, the daughter of kmg Joram, sister of Ahaziah, took Joash 
the son of Ahaziah, and stole him from among the king's sons 
which were slain ; and they hid him, even him and his nurse, in 
the bedchamber from Athaliah, so that he was not slain" (2 Kings 
xi. 2). The bedchamber is literally rendered, " in the chamber 
of beds," and undoubtedly refers to the storeroom for bedding, 
which would afford every convenience for concealment. The 
houses of the poor had no such closet : the bedding was rolled 
up, and stored in a corner of the room. 

The pillow in ordinary use was probably a goat's skin, stuffed 
with wool or other soft substance, such as David's Avife made use 
of in her device to conceal his flight from King Saul : " And 
Michal took an image, and laid it in the bed, and put a pillow of 
goats' hair for his bolster, and covered it with a cloth " (1 Sam. 
xix. 13). When Saul was in camp "in the hill of Hachilah" 
and " lay sleeping within the trench," it is recorded that David 
took " the spear and the cruse of water from Saul's holster " (1 Sam. 
xxvi. 12) ; and it is suggested that in this case as well as in that 
of the prophet Elijah under the juniper-tree, who found " a cruse 
of water at his head " (1 Kings xix. 6), the leather bottle filled 
with water was both cruse and bolster. The pillow " in the 
hinder part of the ship," on which Jesus lay asleep, was the 
rough cushion on which the rowers sat when pulling the oars 
(Mark iv. 38). 

We find our familiar term " bedstead" only once in the Bible ; 
and that is in Deut. iii. 11, where Moses records of Og, king of 
Bashan — who alone " remained of the remnant of giants " — 
that his " bedstead was a bedstead of iron ; " " nine cubits was 
the length thereof, and four cubits the breadth of it, after the 
cubit of a man." By computing the proportions of this antique 
article of furniture at the ordinary measure of the cubit (sixteen 
or eighteen inches), we can readily perceive how it might 
command the attention of even the great lawgiver. But the 
Sacred Books afford many allusions to beds, which plainly signify 
bedsteads of whatever primitive sort, and which doubtless came 



38 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

into general use with the Jews after their entrance into Canaan. 
Bedsteads of wood and metal were common among the Egyp- 
tians, as their sculptures testify : Israel, dying in Egypt, " bowed 
himself upon the bed's head ; " King Solomon made himself a 
"bed" (marginal reading) "of the wood of Lebanon; he made 
the pillars thereof of silver, the bottom thereof of gold, the 
covering of it of purple " (Solomon's Song iii. 9). Tii the profuse 
and licentious time of Amos the prophet, he boldly denounces 
them that " lie upon beds of ivory and stretch themselves upon 
their couches," as well as those " that dwell in Samaria m the 
corner of a bed, and in Damascus in a couch" (Amos vi. 4, iii. 
12). Solomon, in his Proverbs, introduces us to an Oriental bed 
of the utmost luxuriousness, — a bed " decked with coverings of 

tapestry, with carved works, with 
fine linen of Egypt ; " and " per- 
fumed with myrrh, aloes, and 
cinnamon " (Prov. vii. 16); while 
even in a tent in camp, Holo- 
fernes, the chief captain of the 
Assyrian hosts, slept " under a 
canopy which was woven with 
„„ ^^ purple and gold and emeralds 

ASSYRIAN COUCH. i r & 

and precious stones," — a piece 
of work so superb that the beautiful Jewess of the apocry- 
phal story, who delivered her people by slaying this luxurious 
warrior, thought it not unworthy to be dedicated as a gift to the 
Lord (Jud. xvi. 19). We read also in the first chapter of the 
Book of Esther, of " beds of gold and silver" in connection with 
a royal feast ; but these beds were the couches on Avhich the 
guests reclined at the banqueting tables, after the fashion of the 
Persian court. They were probably frameworks of wood, inlaid 
with the precious metals, on which were cushions covered with 
rich silken stuffs, interwoven with gold and silver threads. The 
beds themselves were (for the wealthy) stuffed with feathers and 
swan's-down ; but a less luxurious sort were filled with wool, sea- 
weed, or woolly plants, or even hay and straw. Cushions and 




FURNITURE AND UTENSILS. 



89 



pillows to correspond were furnished for the support of the left 
arm, on which it was usual to lean, leaving the right hand free. 
It was upon such a bed that Haman fell at the " banquet of 
wine " given to King Ahasuerus by the queen (Esth. vii. 8) ; and 
such the " stately bed, and a table ^Drepared before it," that the 
prophet refers to (Ezek. xxiii. 41). 

The Egyptian carpenters were very skilful in the manufacture 
of articles of furniture for the house: the principal woods 
employed for this purpose were the date or the Theban palm, 
acacia, and sycamore, — the fir, ebony, and cedar being reserved 
for the finest cabinet work. They excelled in the arts of veneer- 
ing Avith ivory and metals ; and in the imitation of rare, expen- 
sive Avoods imported from Ethiopia and Asia, for the benefit of 
those householders whose means failed to correspond with their 
luxurious tastes. Monumental models exhibit their ingenuity in 
the manufacture of cabinets or tables having secret drawers, and 
of curious boxes. Some of these, says Wilkinson, " had lids 
resembling the curved summit of a royal canopy, and were orna- 
mented Avith the usual 
cornice ; others had a 

simple flat cover, and {^^C^^^^^=^^'-^'~ ^ ■ '^^..n^ 
some few a pointed sum- t-^'^-C^^^^: ^s^-^^l' 
mit, resembling the 
shelving roof of a 




EGYPTIAN COFFERS, OR ARKS. 



house." 

Every residence of 
any pretension was fur- 
nished with the articles 
noAV considered essen- 
tial to a Avell-appointed 
establishment ; many of 

the couches and chahs, especially, were elegant in form, made 
of choice Avoods, and covered with stamped or embossed leather 
or Avith rich stuflFs ; the heads, legs, and cA'en the entire bodies 
of animals Avere favorite devices of ornamentation. In the 
description of Solomon's throne aa-^c observe an example of 



40 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

this style of ancient art which was plainly opposed to Jewish 
precept and prejudice : " The king made a great throne of 
ivory, and overlaid it with the best gold. The throne had six 
steps, and the top of the throne was round behind : and there 
were stays on either side on the place of the seat, and two 
lions stood beside the stays. And twelve lions stood there on the 
one side and on the other upon the six steps : there was not the 
like made in any kingdom" (1 Kings x. 18-20). 

The use of chairs and stools was very general among the 
early Hebrews, who were slow to adopt the effeminate custom of 
sitting or reclining on cushions. These familiar articles are fre- 
quently mentioned in the Scriptures : we read that " Eli the 
priest sat upon a seat by a post of the temple of the Lord " 
(1 Sam. i. 9) ; and when, being an " old man and heavy," tidings 
were brought him of the death of his sons, and that the Ark of 
God had been taken by the Philistines, " he fell from off the 
seat backward by the side of the gate, and his neck brake, and 
he died" (1 Sam. iv. 18). Humble homes were provided with 
seats from eight to fourteen inches high, made of wood or 
wicker laced together with thongs, in the manner of our rush- 
bottomed chairs. The " stool " furnished by the Shunamite 
woman for the use of the prophet Elisha, in the " little chamber 
on the wall," was by no means the rude article its name sug- 
gests : the Hebrew word so translated is, in some other passages, 
equivalent to " throne." We may therefore conclude that this 
pious lady provided handsomely for the entertainment of her 
exalted guest. The table mentioned in the same connection 
(2 Kings iv. 10) was doubtless intended to hold the candlestick 
with its candle or lamp that burned through the night, accord- 
ing to the custom referred to in the delineation of a " Virtuous 
Woman" of that time: "her candle goeth not out by night" 
(Prov. xxxi. 18). 

The candlestick or lamp-stand was made in varied forms, often 
very beautiful in design and workmanship, — of brass, silver, 
bronze, or even gold, and from one to four feet in height. That 
in use among the common people was made of Avood, and in 



FURNITURE AND UTIi:NSILS. 



41 




SEVEX-BRANCHED CAjSTDLESTTCK. 



the ruder dwellings, with mud walls, it was often nothing more 

than a projection of clay at a convenient height, contrived in the 

process of building, and hollowed to receive the oil and wick. 

The candlestick so familiar to us 

as an illustration in the Sermon 

on the Mount was probably one 

of the tall stands in use at that 

time, not placed on a table, 

but in the centre of the floor : 

" Neither do men light a candle, 

and put it under a bushel, but 

on a candlestick ; and it giveth 

light unto all that are in the 

house" (Matt. v. 15). And so 

in Rev. ii. 1, our Lord represents . 

Himself as walking "in the ^lM?5|i^5S 
midst of the seven golden candle- 
sticks." 

In lands so rich in olive-trees it was natural that the oil 
produced from their fruit should constitute the principal source 
of artificial light for the homes of God's peculiar people, as we 
know it did in the sacred offices of His sanctuary : " Thou shalt 
command the children of Israel that they bring thee pure oil 
olive beaten for the light, to cause the lamp to burn always " 
(Exod. xxvii. 20). The lamps in common use were shallow 
oval vessels made of baked clay, terra-cotta, bronze, and some- 
times of the precious metals. We are made familiar with the 
shapes of ancient lamps by the innumerable specimens recovered 
and preserved in all important museums, or by illustrations of 
them : the most ancient representations are on Egyptian monu- 
ments, such as Avere used, no doubt, by the Hebrews during their 
sojourn in Egypt ; and many of them date before or soon after 
the birth of our Lord. Small antique lamps were usually 
enclosed at the top, where there Avas a hole to receive the oil, 
and another for the wick : they often had handles for convenience 
in carrying them about the house. There were also lamps of 



42 



HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 



different forms to be suspended from the ceiling, or permanently 
fixed upon the wall. 

The "lamps within the pitchers," referred to in Judg. vii. 16, 
were more properly torches, whose smouldering flames Avere 
concealed until the critical moment in a small earthen pot or 
pitcher, — an antique dark lantern, in fact. In like manner 
the lamps in the beautiful Parable of the Ten Virgins were 

doubtless the ordinary 
torches common to the Aved- 
ding processions of the East : 
these were sometimes staves 
having brass dishes at the 
top containing coarse rags, 
oil, and pitch, or lamps in 
which were rags saturated 
with oil, while the bearer 
was provided with a vessel 
of oil with which to feed 
the flame as required. Such 
were probably the sort of 
torches carried by the great 
multitude to the Garden of 
Gethsemane on the night 
of our Saviour's betrayal : 
" Judas then, having re- 
ceived a band of men and 
LAMPS. officers from the chief 

priests and Pharisees, com- 
eth thither with lanterns and torches and weapons " (John xviii. 3). 
The antique lantern referred to in this text was very primi- 
tive in its construction, and probably of transparent horn or 
bladder, enclosed in metal rings at top and bottom. That which 
is still used in Oriental countries has a circular piece of per- 
forated copper at top and bottom ; while the cylindrical " sides " 
are made of parchment or waxed cloth, contrived to fold up 
into a very small compass, so that in the house it may serve as a 




FURNITURE AND UTP:NSILS. 



43 



candlestick, the candle within projecting above the compressed 
folds. Lamp-wicks were made of linen, and there is allusion to 
the smouldering tow dying for lack of oil in the touching 
promise : "A bruised reed shall he not break, and the smoking 
flax shall he not quench " (Isa. xlii. 3). 

The kitchen appliances, whether descriptive of those in " the 
dwellings of Jacob," or in the " ceiled houses " of a later day, 
were exceedingly simple. The oven for baking bread (then, as 
now, the principal food of an Oriental) was, in patriarchal times, 
no more than a "hearth" of 
heated stones, or a bare spot 
of ground on which a fu-e 
might be kindled and the 
embers raked off to receive 
the cake of thin dough. This 
bearth, and the shalloAV pit in 
which the meat was buried, 
and a fire heaped upon the 
clay cover, were doubtless the 
earliest ovens, and are not yet 
altogether abandoned by trav- 
ellers and wandering tribes. 
The " little cake " begged by 
Elijah from the " widow 
woman" of Zarephath (1 
Kings xvii. 13), and the 
" cake baken on the coals " 
for the same prophet, " as 
he lay and slept under a 
juniper-tree" (1 Kings xix. 6), 
illustrate these methods which 

were always employed for unleavened bread. There was also 
another means of baking, by heating a large stone pitcher, 
rolling the dough out into thin cakes, and sticking these on the 
outside of the pitcher where they Avere quickly baked through. 
In the second chapter of Leviticus, in the instructions for bring- 







S 



EGYPTIAN POTS AND PANS. 



44 



HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 



<^s^ 





ing offerings to the Lord, reference is made to " a meat-offering 

baken in an oven," and a " meat-offering baken in a pan," and 

still another " baken in the frying-pan." We may here remind 

the reader that a " meat- 
offering" was always a 
vegetable sacrifice, the 
Scriptural import of the 
word " meat " being simply 
food in general terms ; as 
our Lord addressed the 
disciples on the seashore: 
" Children, have ye any 
meat 1 " (John xxi. 5) mean- 
in g food of any sort. 
Houses in the cities were 
usually provided with porta- 
I'lKlims ble ovens of metal, earthen- 

ware, or stone, which were 

heated with grass, — " which to-day is, and to-morrow is cast into 

the oven " (Matt. vi. 30), — or brushwood, or the shrubby burnet, 

— a common thorn-bush with which the hills of Judsea, Galilee 

and Carrael still 

abound, — so that the 

" crackling of thorns 

under a pot" (Eccl. vii. 

6) is a familiar sound 

even yet in Palestine. 

In Leviticus xi. 35 

there is mention of 

"ranges for pots," 

which may have been 

similar to the Orien- 
tal kitchen-range of 

to-day, — a stone or brick stove within a chimney-place, with 

holes for the pots and to receive the charcoal. 
The one utensil, universally found in an 




HAND-MILL. 



Eastern kitchen, 



FURNITURE AND UTENSILS. 



45 



fl^^^^^^^^WT 



whether of the rich Dives or the destitute Lazarus, was the 
hand-mill, — the sort of which our Lord spoke when He said : 
" Tavo women shall be grinding at the mill : the one shall be 
taken and the other left" (Matt. xxiv. 41). It consisted of two 
circular stones, the "upper " and " nether " millstones : the upper 
revolved on a pivot fixed into the lower, while near the edge of 
the upper stone was a handle by which it was turned, crushing 
the grain and emitting that peculiar graiing sound so often 
alluded to by preacher and prophet in the Bible as an essential 
feature in every scene of domestic activity in the cities of their 
time. The cessation of the " sound of the millstones " in an 
Eastern community was the 
type of a general ruin and 
desolation as by famine or tne 
sword. The ancient Egyp- 
tians seem to have employed 
the mortar and pestle only, 
for preparing grain for house- 
hold use. A small mill can 
be turned and filled by one 
person: but it was customary 
for two women to work to- 
gether, sitting on the ground 
with the mill between them ; 
each lent one hand to the 

wooden or iron handle, and with the other poured the wheat 
or barley into the hole in the upper stone, while the coarse 
meal produced fell upon the cloth spread under the mill. 

This process was so tedious and laborious, that it was often 
imposed upon prisoners of war : when Samson was taken captive 
by the Philistines, we are told that " he did grind in the prison- 
house" (Judg. xvi. 21) ; and in a bold flight of Oriental imagery, 
Isaiah apostrophizes the doomed city : " Come down, and sit in 
the dust, O virgin daughter of Babylon, sit on the ground : there 
is no throne, O daughter of the Chaldeans : for thou shalt no 
more be called tender and delicate. Take the mill-stones, and 




WOMEN AT THE MILL. 



46 



HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 



grind meal" (Isa. xlvii. 2). It was one of the merciful enact- 
ments of the Levitical law that " No man shall take the nether 
or the upper millstone to pledge " (Dent. xxiv. 6). 

The kneading-trough was an equally indispensable article for 
domestic use : in the houses of the poor it was simply an oblong 
shallow wooden basin, or the circular piece of leather that served 
them also as a table ; but in those of the wealthy, of copper or 
iron. When the children of Israel went forth in haste out of 
the land of Egypt, " the people took their dough before it was 




EGYPTIAN EARTHEN VESSELS, 



leavened, their kneading-troughs being bound up in their clothes 
upon their shoulders " (Exod. xii. 34). Mortar and pestle were 
also commonly used for cracking grain, and when all Israel " did 
eat angels' food," we are told of the manna that " the people 
went about, and gathered it, and ground it in mills, or beat it 
in a mortar, and baked it in pans, and made cakes of it " (Num. 
xi. 8). These mortars were made of metal, earthenware, wood 
or stone, mostly of stone. There were caldrons, pans and fry- 
ing-pans, "earthen vessels" and =' brazen pots" (Lev. vi. 28); 



FURNITURE AND UTENSILS. 47 

bowls, cups and spoons, and " lordly dishes," that m the houses 
of kmgs were often of pure gold (Esth. i. 7 ; 1 Kmgs x. 21). 

A characteristic feature of the Hebrew home was the stone 
water-pot; numbers of these stood even in the courts of the 
houses, usually of large size, such as those mentioned in the 
account of the marriage in Cana : " And there were set there 
six water-pots of stone, after the manner of the purifying of the 
Jews, containing two or thi-ee fii-kins apiece " (John ii. 6). These 
were probably used only when large quantities of water were 
needed, as on festive occasions when the feet of the guests were 
washed on entering the house. Besides these, there was a great 
variety of jars and bottles in metal, earthenware, or wood, to 
contam the domestic provisions of the store-room, — grain, dried 
fruit, vegetables, oil, wine, honey, and spices. The " pot of oil," 
mu-aculously multiplied by Elisha for the destitute widow 
(2 Kings iv. 2); the "barrel" and the "cruse" of the widow 
of Zarephath (1 Kmgs xvii. 12); the "four barrels" of water 
that figure in the miracle wrought by Elijah (1 Kings xviii. 33) ; 
and the water-pot left by the woman of Samaria at Jacob's well 
w^here the Messiah had 
talked to her of the Living 
Water (John iv. 28), are 
examples of these jars and 
" potter's vessels." Such, 
too, are the "pitchers" 
which the women took to 
the public Avells and foun- 
tains morning and evening, 
to carry water to their 
homes, as " Rebekah came 
forth with her pitcher on 
her shoulder ; and she went down unto the well, and drew water " 
(Gen, xxiv. 45). 

The most primitive bottles used for holding water, milk, and 
especially wine, were made of the skins of goats and kids, and 
sometimes of oxen. The shape of the animal was quite distin- 




SKIS BOTTLES. 



48 



HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 



guishable, the aeck frequently forming the neck of the bottle ; 
while the legs constituted convenient handles in carrying them, 
for example, over the shoulder, — as Abraham gave the bottle 
of water to Hagar, ".putting it on her shoulder " when she set 
out on her sad journey with the lad Ishmael (Gen. xxi. 14). 

It is of these skin bottles that our Lord speaks in the familiar 
text: "Neither do men put new wine into old bottles: else the 
bottles break, and the wine runneth out, and the bottles perish : 
but they put new wine into new bottles, and both are preserved" 
(Matt. ix. 17). New wine was put into new "green" skins that 
would stretch, without bursting, during the process of fermenta- 
tion ; the old skins, hard, 
shrivelled, and dry, would 
soon "break" under such an 
internal expansion. This is 
especially the case with skin 
bottles filled with wine, that 
have been long hung in the 
smoke to impart a desired 
flavor to their contents, accord- 
ing to David's apt simile : " I 
am become like a bottle in 
the smoke" (Ps. cxix. 83). 
In later times, large earthen 
jars, buried to the neck in the ground, were used by the Hebrews 
and by the Greeks, for the preservation of wine. One of these 
usually held as much as our modern barrel. Skin bottles are 
still used throughout the East, and in some parts of Spain. 

Baskets were in common use in all Oriental households : they 
were made of wicker or rushes, and various in shape and color. 
"White baskets" are mentioned in the history of Joseph (Gen. xl. 
16). The expression "thy basket and thy store" (Deut. xxviii. 
5) was derived from the general custom of gathering the fruits 
of the harvest and the vintage in deep, narrow, wicker baskets, 
as alluded to by Jeremiah : " Turn back thine hand as a grape- 
gatherer into the baskets " (vi. 9). In some texts it is evident 




EGYPTIAN BASKETS. 



FURNITURE AND UTENSILS. 49 

that the word " basket " must signify some more substantial 
vessel, as that in which Gideon carried the seethed kid to the 
angel of the Lord, is supposed to have been of metal (Judg. vi. 
19); while that by which St. Paul was let down from the city wall 
at Damascus must have been of rope. This article, simple as it 
is, assumes a dignified interest for us in its association with our 
Saviour's mu-aculous feeding of the five thousand in the " desert 
place apart," when the disciples "took up of the fragments that 
remained, twelve baskets-full " (Matt. xiv. 20) ; and again, on the 
mountain, " nigh unto the sea of Galilee," where, after the meal, 
"they took up of the broken meat that was left, seven baskets- 
full" (Matt. XV. 37). 

Only those weights and measures which were used in the 
household, and familiarly associated with the lessons of the New 
Testament especially, need to be considered in this connection. 
The Jewish law took cognizance of this important provision for 
the public good in its two precepts, — the one referring to the 
certified standards preserved in the sanctuary: "Ye shall do no 
unrighteousness in judgment, in meteyard, in weight, or in meas- 
ure. Just balances, just weights, a just ephah, and a just hin, 
shall ye have" (Lev. xix. 35, 36); the other, to those kept by 
every family for domestic purposes : " Thou shalt not have in thy 
bag divers weights, a great and a small : thou shalt not have in 
thine house divers measures, a great and a small : but thou shalt 
have a perfect and just weight, a perfect and just measure shalt 
thou have " (Deut. xxv. 13-15). In commercial transactions the 
Hebrews were requii-ed to be punctiliously just in the matter of 
weights and measures : inspectors went from shop to shop, from 
market to market; indeed, the law on this subject in later days 
was full of Pharisaical minutiae; "a wholesale dealer must 
cleanse the measures he used once every month, and a retail 
dealer twice a week ; all weights were to be washed once a 
week, and the scales wiped every time they had been used," to 
remove even " the small dust of the balance" (Isa. xl. 15). 

In the Mosaic period, the weight in common use was a " shek- 
el," the word signifying weight : this was subdivided for con- 



50 



HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 



"t 



venience into a half, a third, and a fourth part of a shekel. The 
expression "shekel of the sanctuary," as found in Exod. xxx. 13, 
to denote the sum each Israelite must 
pay as " a ransom for his soul," is used 
only to prescribe the standard weight of 
precious metal, which in those days 
and for many centuries afterward, was 
their only form of money. The "mineh" 
and the " talent " were other weights of 
the same period. The shekel being 
equivalent to our half-ounce avoirdupois ; 
the mineh (one hundred shekels) repre- 
sented three pounds two ounces ; while 
the talent, equal to thi'ee thousand shek- 
els, or thirty mineh, was ninety-three 
pounds twelve ounces avoirdupois. 

Of the dry measures, the one in daily 
use in the kitchen was the " measure " 
familiar to us in our Lord's Parable of 
the leaven: "The kingdom of heaven is 
like unto leaven, which a woman took, 
and hid ^n three measures of meal, till 
the whole was leavened ; " and that of the 
unjust steward : " How much owest thou 
unto my lord 1 And he said, An hundred 
measures of oil. . . . Then said he to 
another, And how much owest thou] And 
he said. An hundred measures of wheat." 
(Luke xiii. 21, xvi. 5-7.) This was one- 
third of an "ephah," or twenty pints. 
The Greek word translated "bushel" in 
the Sermon on the Mount, "Neither do 
men light a candle, and put it under a 
bushel " (Matt. v. 15), is supposed to express this " measure." 
The Roman bushel corresponded to our peck. The " ephah," of 
Egyptian origin as the name denotes, occurs frequently in the 



FURNITURE AND UTENSILS. 51 

Old Testament, especially with reference to offerings in the 
sanctuary ; the " omer," six pints, is interesting in its connection 
with the miraculous food supplied to the Israelites during the 
forty years' wandering : " This is the thing which the Lord 
commandeth, Fill an omer of it to be kept for your generations, 
that they may see the bread wherewith I have fed you in the 
Avilderness " (Exod. xvi. 32). A " cab " was a small dry measure 
of two pints (2 Kings vi. 25). 

The smallest measure for liquids was the " log," mentioned in 
the Old Testament only — a "log of oil" (Lev. xiv. 10); this 
was "six egg-shells full," or nearly one pint: the " hin" (Egyp- 
tian), commonly found in the Books of Exodus and Numbers, 
held ten pints. The " bath " was the largest of the liquid meas- 
ures, and contained seven and a half gallons. When Solomon 
sent to the king of Tyre for skilled workmen to expedite the 
building of the Temple, he made this contract for their service : 
" Behold, I will give to thy servants, the hewers that cut timber, 
twenty thousand measures of beaten wheat, and twenty thousand 
measures of barley, and twenty thousand baths of wine, and 
twenty thousand baths of oil" (2 Chron. ii. 10). 

The " firkin " was a Greek measure of the same capacity as 
the Hebrew " bath ; " this is of interest in its connection with the 
marriage at Cana, the scene of our Lord's first miracle : " There 
were set there six Avater-pots of stone . . . containing two or 
three firkins apiece " (John ii. 6). 

The balances, in their spiritual significance, are a favorite 
metaphor Avith the sacred writers ; in his affliction. Job exclaims : 
" Oh that my grief were thoroughly weighed, and my calamity 
laid in the balances together!" and utters the prayer: "Let 
me be Aveighed in an even balance, that God may knoAV mine 
integrity " (vi. 2, xxxi. 6). Hosea denounces the " balances of 
deceit " (xii. 7) ; and Amos hears the ungodly merchantmen 
impatiently longing for the "new moon" and the "sabbath" to 
be gone, that they " may set forth wheat, making the ephah 
small, and the shekel great, and falsifying the balances by 
deceit" (viii. 5). The prophet Daniel reads to the terror-stricken 



52 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

king of the Chaldeans his dreadful doom, written " over against 
the candlestick upon the plaster of the wall : " " Thou art 
weighed in the balances, and art found wanting" (Dan. v. 27). 
David stigmatizes those, whether of low or high degree, of whom 
it may be said : " To be laid in the balance, they are altogether 
lighter than vanity" (Ps. Ixii. 9). Solomon declares that "A 
false balance is abomination to the Lord ; but a just weight is His 
delight ; " and that " A just weight and balance are the Lord's : 
all the weights of the bag are His work " (Prov. xi. 1, xvi. 11) ; 
and Micah interprets the mind of the Almighty when he pro- 
nounces the " scant measure " an " abomination," and asks, in His 
name, " Shall I count them pure with the wicked balances, and 
with the bag of deceitful weights'? " (vi. 11) ; while Isaiah magni- 
fies the glory of the Creator, " who hath measured the waters in 
the hollow of His hand, and meted out heaven with the span, and 
comprehended the dust of the earth in a measure, and weighed 
the mountains in scales, and the hills in a balance " (xl. 12). 



III. 

MARRIAaE, WIDOWHOOD, AND DIVORCE. 





^ HE forty-sixth chapter of Genesis, where we read how 
the venerable Jacob came into Egypt accompanied by 
" his sons, and his sons' sons, his daughters, and his 
sons' daughters, and all his seed," presents a faithful 
picture of the patriarchal system, as it prevailed among the 
ancient people of God. This intimate union of interests, 
domestic and material, was a feature in Eastern households 
strange to us, who are accustomed to see the closest family ties 
severed by the marriage of son or daughter, or even by less 
important exigencies. 



54 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

When a son married, he brought his wife to his father's house, 
as Isaac met Rebekah, and " brought her into his mother Sarah's 
tent " (Gen. xxiv. 67) ; and as Tobias took Sara his wife to his 
father's house at Nineveh (Tob. xi.) ; he continued to live in 
filial subordination, and contributed his earnings to the common 
family purse. Where there were many sons, the household 
under a single roof might easily consist of fifty members, all 
rendering obedience to the acknowledged head; and when the 
father died, instead of scattering and forming new households, 
it was customary to invest the eldest son with the patriarchal 
authority, who henceforth became the representative of his 
entire family and kindred. 
A Up to the time of the Captivity, a plurality of wives prevailed 
^ among the patriarchs, notwithstanding the Mosaic dispensation, 
which, in both letter and spirit, declared its opposition to this 
practice, though not to the extent of prohibition. It must be 
acknowledged, however, that polygamy, as practised by the 
Hebrews, never became that revolting institution familiar to 
us in the history of pagan and Mohammedan nations : it was, 
rather, a carefully defined system, which permitted more than 
one wife, but recognizing always the chief or legitimate wife, 
whose superior rights were never disputed ; and yet the others 
had, each, her own rights within certain limitations, equally 
well established. 

Beside the chief wife and the secondary wife or wives, there 
was the concubine, who bore an inferior though legitimate 
conjugal relation to the master of the family. These were 
either young Jewesses bought of their fathers, or heathen cap- 
tives taken in war. Concubines differed from wives in the 
absence in their case of any of the usual solemnities by which 
betrothal and marriage were consummated: they had no voice 
in the family government or interests ; and though their chil- 
di-en were not illegitimate, the children of the wives proper 
were preferred in questions of inheritance. It was customary 
for barren wives to give their handmaids to their husbands, to 
bear children in their stead : thus Sarah gave Hagar, her 




HAGAR AND ISHMAEL. 



MARRIAGE, WIDOWHOOD, AND DIVORCE. 57 

Egyptian maid, to Abraham her husband (Gen. xvi. 3) ; and 

" when E-achel saw that she bare Jacob no children," " she 

gave him Bilhah her handmaid to 

wife" (Gen. xxx. 1, 4). There was 

no stigma attaching to the relation 

of concubine, but her social position 

was much inferior to that of the wife, 

and her influence upon her husband 

quite insignificant, unless, indeed, she 

chanced to be of exceptional charm 

and force of character. The rights 

of a concubine, even though a captive 

Gentile girl, were carefully protected 

by law: "When thou goest forth to 

war against thine enemies, and the 

Lord thy God hath delivered them into 

thine hands, and thou hast taken them 

captive, and seest among the captives 

a beautiful woman, and hast a desire 

unto her, that thou wouldest have her 

to thy wife ; then thou shalt brmg her 

home to thine house ; and she shall 

shave her head, and pare her nails ; 

and she shall put the raiment of her 

captivity from ofl" her, and shall remain 

in thine house, and bewail her father 

and her mother a full month : and 

after that thou shalt go in unto her, 

and be her husband, and she shall be 

thy wife. And it shall be, if thou 

have no delight in her, then thou shalt 

let her go whither she will ; but thou 

shalt not sell her at all for money, 

thou shalt not make merchandise of 

her, because thou hast humbled her " (Deut. xxi. 10-14). And 

in the more delicate question of one wife preferred to another, 




58 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

the law again interferes for the protection of the " weaker 
vessel : " " If a man have two wives, one beloved, and another 
hated, and they have borne him childi-en, both the beloved and 
the hated ; and if the firstborn son be hers that was hated : then 
it shall be, when he maketh his sons to inherit that which he 
hath, that he may not make the son of the beloved firstborn 
before the son of the hated, which is indeed the firstborn : bnt 
he shall acknowledge the son of the hated for the firstborn, by 
giving him a donble portion of all that he hath : for he is the 
beginning of his strength ; the right of the firstborn is his " 
(Deut. xxi. 15-17). It is a significant consideration that the 
first instance of polygamy recorded in the Bible is found in the 
family of a near descendant of the accursed Cain : " Lamech 
took unto him two wives : the name of the one was Adah, and 
the name of the other Zillah" (Gen. iv. 19), — himself a mur- 
derer, as he confessed to his wives. It is recorded of that 
" mighty man of valor," Gideon, son of Joash, that he had 
" threescore and ten sons : " " for he had many wives." The law 
admonished kings, especially, not to " multiply wives," that their 
hearts "turn not away" (Deut. xvii. 17); nevertheless, the 
Sacred Books are full of illustrious ofi"enders against this whole- 
some restriction, among whom David and his son Solomon are 
distinguished examples : " King Solomon loved many strange 
women, together with the daughter of Pharaoh, . . . and he 
had seven hundred wives, princesses, and three hundred concu- 
bines" (1 Kings xi. 1, 3). Polygamy was unknown in Egypt, 
nor can it be ascertained what was the Hebrew practice during 
their long sojourn in that land : doubtless the poverty and oppres- 
sion under Avhich they groaned had a salutary influence in 
correcting the evil. There is no doubt, however, that under 
their happier auspices in Canaan, they returned to the old sin ; 
their prophets ceased not to inveigh against this practice, and 
the still more baleful mixed marriages with neighboring heathen 
women : nevertheless the wealthier classes continued to yield 
to the national temptation, even down to the New Testament 
era, where we find St. Paul limiting the qualifications for a 



MARRIAGE, WIDOWHOOD, AND DIVORCE. 59 

bishopric or deaconship in the early Christian Church to " the 
husbands of one wife " (1 Tim. iii. 2, 12). 

The most superficial Bible-reader can scarcely have failed to 
note the important part that Woman enacts in the Sacred Story, 
from Sarah, Hebekah, Leah, and Eachel, the " four mothers " of 
patriarchal Israel, to Dorcas, Lydia, Priscilla, Lois, and Eunice, 
of the New Testament, even to Her whom all nations call 
"sussed," the exalted Mother of Our Lord! 
^jJTlie Hebrew women were not secluded after the manner of 
other Orientals : they mingled freely in society, and, so far as 
comported Avith modesty, took part even in public movements 
when those were of a beneficent or religious character. The 
title accorded to a wife, corresponding to that of her husband in 
every instance, testifies to the position she occupied in the 
family, — the possessor of equal dignity and rights ; while " trust- 
ing m God " she was yet " in subjection " to her own husband, 
" even as Sarah obeyed Abraham, calling him lord" (1 Pet. iii. 
5, 6). The law-givers, prophets, preachers, and poets of her 
own nation rise up to do honor to the faithful wife in Israel ; 
and to her we owe the inspiration of one of the most exquisite 
pictures of home-life in the Bible : " the words of King Lemuel 
. . . that his mother taught him:" "Who can find a virtuous 
w^oman? for her price is far above rubies. The heart of her 
husband doth safely trust in her, so that he shall have no need 
of spoil. She will do him good and not evil all the days of her 
life. She seeketh wool, and flax, and worketh willingly with her 
hands. She is like the merchants' ships ; she bringeth her food 
from afar. She riseth also while it is yet night, and giveth meat 
to her household, and a portion to her maidens. She considereth 
a field, and buyeth it ; with the fruit of her hands she planteth 
a vineyard. She girdeth her loins with strength, and strength- 
eneth her arms. She perceiveth that her merchandise is good : 
her candle goeth not out by night. She layeth her hands to the 
spindle, and her hands hold the distaff. She stretcheth out her 
hand to the poor ; yea, she reacheth forth her hands to the 
needy. She is not afraid of the snow for her household ; for all 



60 



HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 



her household are clothed with scarlet. She maketh herself 
covermgs of tapestry ; her clothmg is silk and purple. Her 
husband is known in the gates, when he sitteth among the elders 
of the land. She maketh fine linen, and selleth it ; and deliv- 
ereth gu'dles unto the merchant. Strength and honor are her 
clothing; and she shall rejoice in time to come. She openeth 




her mouth with wisdom ; and in her tongue is the law of kind- 
ness. She looketh well to the ways of her household, and 
eateth not the bread of idleness. Her children arise up, and 
call her blessed ; her husband also, and he praiseth her. Many 
daughters have done virtuously, but thou excellest them all. 
Favor is deceitful, and beauty is vain ; but a woman that feareth 
the Lord, she shall be praised. Give her of the fruit of her 
hands ; and let her own works praise her in the gates." (Pro v. 
xxxi. 10-31.) 



MARRIAGE, WIDOWHOOD, AND DIVORCE. 63 

The position of a widow or an nnmarried woman in the East, 
especially in very ancient times, Avas peculiarly unhappy and 
insecure. A husband's house was her only sure refuge from 
servitude, insult, or neglect ; hence it was called by the Hebrews 
the woman's " mennehah " (rest) ; so Naomi took leave of her two 
young widowed daughters-in-law with the affectionate invocation : 
" The Lord grant you that ye may find rest, each of you in the 
house of her husband" (Ruth i. 9). The old Mosaic law pro- 
vided for the immediate succor and protection of a young widow, 
whose deceased husband had left brothers or near male relatives, 
Avhether married or unmarried. In Deuteronomy, twenty-fifth 
chapter, it is Avritten : " If brethren dwell together, and one of 
them die, and have no child, the wife of the dead shall not marry 
without unto a stranger: her husband's brother . . . shall take her 
to him to wife." " And it shall be, that the firstborn which she 
beareth shall succeed in the name of his brother which is dead, 
that his name be not put out of Israel" (5, 6). The widow, on 
her part, was required to remain in the same house, and not to 
marry again, except the nearest kinsman of her deceased hus- 
band. If this person from any reason of expediency could not 
fulfil her claim upon him, he could transfer his obligation to the 
next nearest of kin. A widow no longer marriageable, who had 
no son, could relinquish her estate in favor of a childless and 
widowed daughter-in-law, — as Naomi did in the case of Huth, 
for the Moabitess had no claim whatever upon the kinsman of her 
Jewish mother-in-law. The penalty that awaited the unworthy 
son of Israel who refused to fulfil his sacred obligation to the 
dead, is thus graphically described m the chapter of Deuteronomy 
last quoted : " Then shall his brother's wife come unto him in the 
presence of the elders, and loose his shoe from off his foot, and 
spit in his face, and shaU answer and say, So shall it be done 
unto that man that will not build up his brother's house. And 
his name shaU be called in Israel, The house of him that hath his 
shoe loosed" (9, 10). 

This ancient privilege of the widow justified her in taking steps 
to secure her right which seem to us lacking in delicacy if not 
decorum, as ui the cases of Tamar and Ruth. 



64 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

It was concerning this law that " the Sadducees, which deny 
that there is any resurrection," came to inquire of Jesus, suppos- 
ing, for argument's sake, an extreme case: " There were there- 
fore seven brethren: and the first took a wife, and died without 
children. And the second took her to wife, and he died child- 
less. And the third took her ; and in like manner the seven 
also : and they left no children, and died. Last of all the woman 
died also. Therefore in the resurrection whose wife of them is 
she ? for seven had her to wife " (Luke xx. 29-33 j. Our Lord's 
answer, while rebuking their grossly material representation of a 
future life, declares the truth of the doctrine they denied: "They 
which shall be accounted worthy to obtain that world, and the 
resurrection from the dead, neither marry, nor are given in mar- 
riage : neither can they die any more : for they are equal unto 
the angels ; and are the childi-en of God, being the children of 
the resurrection" (35, 36). 

In apostolic times, widows were emancipated from their tradi- 
tional reproach, St. Paul calls upon the Church to " honor 
widows that are widows indeed ; " though even he makes a dis- 
tinction (in respect of membership in a society, apparently) 
between her who is " desolate " and the " younger widows," for 
the reason that the latter " will marry " (1 Tim. v. 3, 11). 

Of the few women Avhom the Saviour saw fit to select for His 
individual commendation, " a certain poor widow," who threw 
two mites into the treasury of the Temple, compelled his spon- 
taneous tribute : " And he called unto him his disciples, and saith 
unto them, Verily I say unto you, that this poor widow hath cast 
more in, than all they which have cast into the treasury : for all 
they did cast in of their abundance ; but she of her want did cast 
in all that she had, even all her living" (Mark xii. 43, 44) ; and 
the sorrow of another — who followed the bier of her only son out 
of the city of Nain — called forth the omnipotent deliverance by 
Avhich " he that was dead sat up, and began to speak. And He 
delivered him to his mother" (Luke vii. 15). It was expected 
of a young Hebrew, even as a religious obligation in view of the 
promised Messiah, that he should marry at seventeen or eighteen 



MARRIAGE, WIDOWHOOD, AND DIVORCE. bo 

years of age ; but twenty was the extreme limit to which he 
might defer this vital event, unless he had so given himself up to 
study as to leave him neither time nor inclination to assume the 
responsibilities of the wedded state. It Avas not inconsistent with 
the freedom permitted in the intercourse of the sexes, for a young 
man to make personal choice of a bride ; but he was not encour- 
aged to expect a happy result from such self-assertion. The two 
Avives that Esau took to himself at the mature age of forty were 
" a grief of mind to Isaac and Rebekah," his father and mother 
(Gen. xxvi. 35) ; and when it came to be a measure of safety for 
the younger son Jacob that he should be sent away from home, 
the doting mother comforted herself and said to Isaac : " I am 
weary of my life because of the daughters of Heth : if Jacob take 
a wife of the daughters of Heth, such as these which are of the 
daughters of the land, what good shall my life do meV (Gen, 
xx-vii. 46.) The sons, however, were sometimes suffered to ex- 
press then- personal preferences to their parents, of which Ave 
have tAVO instances : it is related of the son of Hamor, " prince of 
the country " Avhere Jacob had " bought a parcel of a field," and 
AA^here he had " spread his tent," that " his soul clave unto Dinah 
the daughter of Jacob, and he loved the damsel, and spake kindly 
unto the damsel. And Shechem spake unto his father Hamor, 
saying. Get me this damsel to Avife" (Gen. xxxiv. 3, 4) ; and of 
the mighty Samson, that he " Avent down to Timnath, and saAV a 
AA^oman in Timnath of the daughters of the Philistines. And he 
came up, and told his father and his mother, and said, I have 
seen a Avoman in Timnath of the daughters of the Philistines : 
now therefore get her for me to Avife" (Judg. xiv. 1, 2). 

But it Avas the common custom for the parents on both sides 
to negotiate this delicate transaction strictly without interference 
from the young people interested. Thus Hagar chose a Avife for 
her son Ishmael "out of the land of Egypt" (Gen. xxi. 21); and 
" Judah took a Avife for Er, his fhstborn, Avhose name Avas 
Tamar " (Gen. xxxviii. 6) ; the patriarch Abraham sent his trusty 
servant hundreds of miles away from the land of his adoption to 
select a AAdfe for his son, saying: '-Thou shalt go unto my 



66 



HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 



country, and to my kindred, and take a Avife unto my son Isaac " 
(Gen. xxiv. 4). Indeed, this last chapter contains a comprehen- 
sive iUustration of the marriage cus- 
toms of that time. Abraham sought a 
daughter-in-law from among his own 
kindred ; and Laban answered his 
nephew's proposal for his daughter 
Rachel in these words : " It is better 
that I give her to thee, than that I 
should give her to another man " (Gen. 
xxix. 19), although Jacob was so poor 
that he had to purchase his two wives 
by fourteen long years of labor ; and 
Tobit warned his son Tobias, " Take 
not a strange woman to wife, Avhich is 
not of thy father's tribe ; . . . remem- 
ber, my son, that our fathers from the 
beginning, even that they all married 
wives of then- own kindred, and were 
blessed in their children" (Tob. iv. 12). 
Marriages between near relatives were 
preferred by the ancient HebreAvs, from 
a strong feeling of exclusiveness, as 
well as Avith the object of keeping- 
wealth in the family. The degrees 
of relationship between those intending 
marriage, Avhich Avould render the alli- 
ance illegal, Avere sharply defined by 
the Mosaic LaAv (Lev. xviii. 6-18). 

St. Paul's admonition to the Chris- 
tians at Corinth to marry " only in the 
Lord" (1 Cor. vii. 39) is but a con- 
densation of many Rabbinical exhorta- 
tions to the young bachelors of his time : 
one affirms that " men marry for one of four reasons, — passion, 
wealth, honor, or the glory of God ; " and after inveighing 




MARRIAGE, WIDOWHOOD, AND DIVORCE. 67 

against the first three meretricious motives, and citing examples 
of the clcstructive tendency of each, as recorded in the holy 
Scriptures, he holds up for their emulation the marriage made 
" in the name of heaven," or " for the name of God," promising 
that the issue of such Avill be children who shall "preserve 
Israel." 

We have said that the proposal of marriage came from the 
family of the bridegroom ; and the few exceptions on record go 
far to prove the rule on this interesting subject: when "Moses 
fled from the face of Pharaoh, and dAvelt in the land of Midian," 
Jethro, the priest, took compassion upon the desolate stranger, 
invited him to his house, and gave him Zipporah, one of his 
seven daughters, to Avife (Exod. ii. 21). So Caleb gave Achsah, 
his daughter, to Othniel, her kinsman, to wife (Josh. xv. 16, 17); 
and Saul, the king, gave his daughter Michal to David, instead 
of the elder daughter Merab, who had been promised to him 
but treacherously married to another man (1 Sam. xviii. 27). It 
was of very old social custom that the elder daughter must be 
married first, no matter what might be her lack of personal 
attractions. It is probable, however, that this rule was subject 
to certain local limitations ; for Jacob seems to have been ignorant 
of it until after his cruel disappointment, when his shrewd father- 
in-law explained to him that " it must not be so done in our 
country, to give the younger before the firstborn " (Gen. xxix. 26). 

After the choice of the bride had been made, the formal 
contract followed, which was termed the betrothal or espousal : 
and it was always accompanied by presents according to the 
means of the bridegroom ; for in Oriental marriages the primi- 
tive idea was evidently that the bride was to be purchased. The 
dowry came not with the bride, but was given for her : if not in 
money, jewels, flocks, or lands, it was paid in labor ; as Jacob 
became herdman to Laban, and Moses, probably, to Jethro, while 
the love-stricken Shechem placed no limit upon the marriage 
portion that Jacob might demand for Dinah, his daughter. "And 
Shechem said unto her father and unto her brethren. Let me find 
grace in your eyes, and what ye shall say unto me I will give. 



68 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

Ask me never so much dowry and gift, and I will give according 
as ye shall say unto me ; but give me the damsel to wife " (Gen. 
xxxiv. 11, 12). 

No written contract of marriage was required among the 
Hebrews until after the Captivity: the acceptance of the bride- 
groom's presents, by the bride and her family, made the engage- 
ment as legally binding as wedlock itself. It will be remembered, 
that as soon as Rebekah had received the "jewels of silver, and 
jewels of gold, and raiment," that Abraham's steward had 
brought, and her mother and her brother had accepted the 
" precious things " (ten camels' load), the marriage was an 
accomplished fact, not to be set aside except by a bill of divorce : 
" And they called Rebekah, and said unto her, Wilt thou go with 
this man 1 And she said, I will go. And they sent away Re- 
bekah then* sister, and her nurse, and Abraham's servant, and 
his men. And they blessed Rebekah, and said unto her. Thou 
art our sister ; be thou the mother of thousands of millions, and 
let thy seed possess the gate of those which hate them. And 
Rebekah arose, and her damsels, and they rode upon the camels, 
and followed the man ; and the servant took Rebekah, and went 
his way. And Isaac came from the way of the well Lahai-roi ; 
for he dwelt in the south country. And Isaac went out to medi- 
tate in the field at the eventide : and he lifted up his eyes, and 
saw, and, behold, the camels were coming. And Rebekah lifted 
up her eyes, and when she saw Isaac she lighted off the camel. 
For she had said unto the servant, What man is this that walketh 
in the field to meet us? And the servant had said. It is my 
master . therefore she took a veil, and covered herself. And the 
servant told Isaac all things that he had done. And Isaac 
brought her into his mother Sarah's tent, and took Rebekah, and 
she became his wife : and he loved her : and Isaac was comforted 
after his mother's death " (Gen. xxiv. 58-67). 

In the quaint apocryphal story of Tobit, we have an example 
of the marriage customs of a later period ; but this case may 
have been exceptional from the peculiar circumstances narrated. 

The angel, travelling in the guise of a companion with Tobias, 



MAERIAGE, WIDOWHOOD, AND DIVORCE. 71 

said to the young man, '• Brother, to-day we shall lodge with 
Raguel, who is thy cousin ; he also hath one only daughter, named 
Sara ; I will speak for her, that she may be given thee for a wife. 
. . . The maid is fail- and wise : now therefore hear me, and I 
will speak to her father ; and Avhen we return from Rages we 
will celebrate the marriage. For I know that Eaguel cannot 
marry her to another according to the law of Moses, but he 
shall be guilty of death, because the right of inheritance doth 
rather appertain to thee than to any other." 

After the preliminaries had been settled by the angel, who 
acted as the 'paranymiili on this occasion, the father, Eaguel, said 
to Tobias : " Then take her from henceforth according to the 
manner ; for thou art her cousin, and she is thine ; and the 
merciful God give you good success in all things. 

" Then he called his daughter Sara, and she came to her 
father, and he took her by the hand, and gave her to be wife to 
Tobias : saying, Behold ! take her after the law of Moses, and 
lead her away to thy father. And he blessed them ; and called 
Edna his wife, and took paper, and did write an instrument of 
covenants, and sealed it. . . . 

" And he kept the wedding feast fourteen days. . . . Then 
Raguel arose, and gave him Sara his wife, and half his goods, 
servants and cattle and money: and he blessed them, and sent 
them away, saying, The God of heaven give you a prosperous 
journey, my children. And he said to his daughter, Honor thy 
father and thy mother in law, which are noAV thy parents, that I 
may hear good report of thee. And he kissed her. 

" Edna also said to Tobias, The Lord of heaven restore thee, 
my dear brother, and grant that I may see thy children of my 
daughter Sara before I die, that I may rejoice before the Lord : 
behold, I commit my daughter unto thee of special trust ; Avhere- 
fore do not entreat her evil." (Tob. vi., vii., x.) 

Hence it will be seen that betrothal was the actual beginning 
of the married state : the maiden was regarded as a wife, and 
any breach of decorum or fidelity on her part was condemned as 
the gravest infringement of the marriage bond ; even her prop- 



72 



HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 



erty became her bridegroom's, unless he voluntarily relinquished 
his right. Thus in the Gospel story, Joseph is called the " hus- 
band" of the Blessed Virgin Mary, " before they came together," — 
she having been only as yet " espoused" to him (Matt. i. 18, 19). 




TOBIAS AND SARA. 



These espousals were often contracted in the very early childhood 
of the young couple, by theu* parents or brothers ; but the mar- 
riage, in such a case, did not take place until the bride had 
attained her twelfth year. Even when both parties were of mar- 
riageable age, it was customary to allow at least a year to elapse 
between the betrothal and the actual marriage, — that interval of 



MARRIAGE, WIDOWHOOD, AND DIVORCE. 73 

time being considered necessary to prepare the bridal outfit. On 
the other hand, a widow need postpone her nuptials only thirty 
days after the day of espousals. 

The ceremony of betrothal was usually celebrated with a feast 
in the house of the bride, after which the prospective pair held 
communication with each other only through the " friend of the 
bridegroom." This important agent in Oriental marriage nego- 
tiations was the nearest friend of the young bridegroom ; and 
upon him devolved the thousand and one delicate preliminaries 
to the actual union of the couple. Indeed, it is said that his 
good offices ceased not even here, but that after marriage he 
might reconcile differences, if any should arise, between the 
newly-wedded, and Avas constituted in all respects the confidant 
of the family. The " friend of the bridegroom " must not be 
confounded with the term " children of the bridechamber," used 
by Our Lord in answer to the Pharisees (Matt. ix. 15), and which 
simply signifies the guests invited to the wedding. This exalted 
office of paranymph was that which St. John the Baptist claimed 
for himself in his relation to Christ, as " preparing the way " for 
the heavenly Bridegroom to take possession of His bride, the 
Church — standing and hearing him, and rejoicing greatly because 
of his voice (John iii. 29). And in this character St. Paul 
wrote to the Corinthians : " I am jealous over you with godly 
jealousy ; for I have espoused you to one husband, that I may 
present you as a chaste virgin to Christ " (2 Cor. xi. 2). And so, 
in the spiritual union of Jehovah with His people Israel, Moses 
fulfils the office of the " friend of the bridegroom," who leads 
out the mystical bride to the place of meeting at Sinai : " And 
Moses brought forth the people out of the camp to meet with 
God ; and they stood at the nether part of the mount " (Exod. 
xix. 17). Indeed, m some hyper-spiritual commentary by an 
ancient Rabbi, it is represented that the " Almighty Himself took 
the cup of blessing, and spoke the benediction, while Michael 
and Gabriel acted the ' bridegroom's friends ' to our first parents 
when they wedded in Paradise " ! 

When the time was finally appointed for the wedding, prepa- 



74 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

rations to celebrate the happy consummation were made to the 
full extent of the means of the bridegroom, since his house was 
to be the special scene of rejoicing in vieAv of the introduction 
of its new mistress. Invitations to the wedding feast were given 
some time in advance ; and they were repeated at the time of 
celebration, by messengers sent to notify each guest. This custom 
of double invitations is of very ancient origin, and is still ob- 
served in some parts of the East : frequent allusion is made to it 
in Scripture narrative ; Esther formally invited the king and 
Haman to a " banquet of wine," and when it was ready the 
chamberlains of the king " hasted to bring Haman unto the 
banquet that Esther had prepared ; " so, too, the parable recorded 
by St. Luke affords a striking illustration : "A certain man 
made a great supper, and bade many : and sent his servant at 
supper-time to say to them, that were bidden, Come; for all things 
are now ready" (Luke xiv. 16, 17); and again in that related 
by St. Matthew, where " A certain king, which made a marriage 
for his son," " sent forth his servants to call them that were 
bidden to the wedding," " saying. Tell them which are bidden, 
Behold, I have prepared my dinner ; my oxen and my fatlings 
are killed, and all things are ready : come unto the marriage " 
(Matt. xxii. 2-4). 

In many cases invitations to Oriental banquets were absolutely 
general in their character, addressed in the name of charity to 
rich and poor, friends and strangers. The last-quoted parable 
affords an example of this custom, in the ninth verse, where the 
king, justly indignant at the refusal of those that were bidden, 
bade his servants : " Go ye therefore into the highways, and as 
many as ye shall find, bid to the marriage. So those servants 
went out into the highways, and gathered together all as many as 
they found, both bad and good ; and the wedding was furnished 
with guests." The allegorical banquet given by Wisdom is 
described as one of these peculiarly Oriental entertainments : 
" She hath killed her beasts ; she hath mingled her wine ; she 
hath also furnished her table. She hath sent forth her maidens ; 
she crieth upon the highest places of the city " (Prov. ix. 2, 3). 



MARRIAGE, WIDOWHOOD, AND DlVORCPl 



75 



It is to be observed that these invitations were made, evidently in 
the pnblic streets, by women, through whose shrill voices, " upon 
the highest places of the city," she reached all classes of its 
inhabitants. A modern traveller relates his observation of a 
similar custom in Egypt : some ten or twelve women, veiled, and 
attended by eunuchs and other servants, went about the streets of 




VRRIAGE FEAST AT CANA, 



a town, uttering shrill and quavering notes, which he was in- 
formed were intended to express joy, and to constitute a public 
invitation to a festive gathering. In the days of Christ it would 
appear that only men-servants were charged with these hospitable 
announcements. 

In the story of the marriage of Samson at Timnath to a 
daughter of the Philistines, reference is made to the custom of 



76 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

a farewell feast given by the bridegroom to his friends : " And 
Samson made there a feast ; for so used the young men to do. 
And it came to pass, when they saw him, that they brought 
thirty companions to be with him" (Judg. xiv. 10, 11). This 
entertainment, being a part of the wedding festivities, began a 
week before the nuptial ceremony, and Avas supplemented by 
another week of feasting and rejoicing. It was on the seventh 
day of the young men's festivities that they proposed to the bride 
to " entice " her betrothed ; and it was not until she had " wept 
before him the seven days while their (own) feast lasted," that 
he told her the answer of the riddle. On the occasion of Jacob's 
marriage, Laban, his father-in-law, " gathered together all the 
men of the place, and made a feast ; " and when Jacob protested 
against the deceit practised upon him in giving him Leah, Laban 
told him to " fulfil her week " of festivities and rejoicing, and 
Rachel should also be given him to wife. 

It was customary for Eastern monarchs and persons of distinc- 
tion to present their guests with festal robes on all occasions of 
magnificent entertainment, but more especially at marriage-feasts ; 
and the company were expected to put them on, and wear them 
throughout the festivities. This involved no trouble to the guest 
in changing the apparel ; for the robe was simply an outer cloak 
or vest, with or without sleeves, to lay upon the shoulders. To 
reject, or neglect to make use of, this robe, was a flagrant 
insult to the host. Many cases are cited by historians of Eastern 
manners, where such presumption has cost a man his life at the 
hand of a despotic and irate monarch. In this connection the 
reader will recall the parable, in which, the king having come in 
" to see the guests, he saw there a man which had not on a 
wedding garment. And he saith unto him. Friend, how camest 
thou in hither, not having a wedding garment? And he was 
speechless. Then said the king to the servants. Bind him hand 
and foot, and take him away, and cast him into outer darkness ; 
there shall be Aveeping and gnashing of teeth" (Matt. xxii. 11). 

Mention has been made of the " governor of the feast," or, as 
we might say, " master of ceremonies," a very necessary officer 



MARRIAGE, WroOWHOOD, AND DIVORCE. 



77 



on these occasions, when an immense conconrse of people, inclined 
to be demonstrative, thronged an Oriental house in all the glory 
of its gala display. His duties were to escort distinguished 
guests to the places of honor, — a punctilious point of etiquette in 
the East, — and, with consummate tact, to dispose of all according 
to their relative positions in life : he prescribed the order of the 
amusement, preserved decorum, and tasted the wines before they 
were offered to the company. Among the Romans, the " master 
of the feast " was chosen by throwing dice : his rules for drinking, 
and for other details of the entertainment, Avere absolute. Thus 
at the marriage m Cana of Galilee, — hallowed above all other 
weddings by the presence of Jesus and His mother, — when, at 
her request, the Son of Mary changed the water into wine : 
" He saith unto them. Draw out now, and bear unto the governor 
of the feast" (John ii. 8). It would seem from our Lord's 
parable that the matter of seats, or " rooms," was sometimes left 
to the discretion of guests, but it was still subject to severe 
restrictions : " When thou art bidden of any man to a wedding, 
sit not down in the highest room ; lest a more 
honorable man than thou be bidden of him ; 
and he that bade thee and him come and say 
to thee. Give this man place ; and thou begin 
Avith shame to take the lowest room. But 
when thou art bidden, go and sit down in the 
lowest room ; that when he that bade thee 
Cometh, he may say unto thee. Friend, go up 
higher : then shalt thou have worship in the 
presence of them that sit at meat with thee " 
(Luke xiv. 8-10). The Pharisees were repeat- 
edly rebuked by Christ for then- persistent 
appropriation of " the uppermost rooms at 
feasts, and the chief seats in the synagogues" (Matt, xxiii. 6). 
While these preparations have been going on in the home of 
the bridegroom, and while he himself, attended by his " friend " 
and his young companions, has put on the festive apparel, " per- 
fumed with all powders of the merchant," and the nuptial turban 




THE BRIDEGROOM. 



78 



HOME^LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 



representing the crown of King Solomon " wherewith his mother 
crowned him in the day of his espousals, and in the day of the 
gladness of his heart," the expectant lady has not been idle. 
Jeremiah exclaims, " Can a maid forget her ornaments, or a bride 
her attire ? " and it is quite safe to deny any such imputation 
aimed at an Oriental bride, however passive. Surrovinded by her 

maidens and her young 
companions, she has for 
many hours submitted to 
the tedious processes of the 
toilet prescribed by tradi- 
tion and custom ; in Avhich 
interesting connection we 
may mention that in later 
times so grave a code as the 
Talmud directed that one- 
tenth of a bride's dowry 
should be appropriated to 
perfumes and cosmetics. It 
is of vital moment that she 
should shine with tenfold 
charm, since so much de- 
pends upon this, presuma- 
bly the first, glimpse her 
husband is to catch of her 
face, imaged to him here- 
tofore only in dreams ! The 
most costly garments attainable by her family have been prepared, 
together with a profusion of glittering, jingling jewelry, excessive 
to all but Oriental eyes ; in fact, so incumbent was this display 
of gold and precious stones, upon both contracting parties, that 
if too poor to possess the necessary outfit they borrowed it from 
friends, — so that the simile of the prophet, "as a bridegroom 
decketh himself with ornaments, and as a bride adorneth herself 
with her jewels," Avas as familiar as household words. 

The one complete description of a bridal toilet, procurable 




MARRIAGE, AYIDOWHOOD, AND DIVORCE. 



from the Bible, is iii the allegory Avherein the Lord declares His 
love for Jerusalem under the figure 
of a marriage : " Yea, I sware unto 
thee, and entered into a covenant 
with thee, saith the Lord God, and 
thou becamest mine. Then washed I 
thee with Avater ; . . . and I anointed 
thee with oil. I clothed thee also with 
broidered work, and shod thee with 
badgers' skin, and I girded thee about 
with fine linen, and I covered thee 
with silk. I decked thee also with 
ornaments, and I put bracelets upon 
thy hands, and a chain on thy neck. 
And I put a jewel on thy forehead, 
and earrings in thine ears, and a beau- 
tiful crown upon thine head. Thus 
wast thou decked with gold and silver ; 
and thy raiment was of fine linen, and 
silk, and broidered work " (Ezek. xvi. 
8-L3). The " beautiful crown upon 
thine head " doubtless signified some 
one of the many curious headdresses 
assumed at marriage by Oriental 
women from very ancient times, and 
significant of the crown that wedlock 
was presumed to bestow upon the vir- 
gin, making her thenceforth a queen. 
Among these was the famous " Leba- 
non horn," still worn by Jewish mar- 
ried women resident at Tunis and 
Algiers ; the large silver cup-shaped 
crown, fastened to the back of the 
head ; the small silver trumpet, worn 

at the left side of the head above the ear ; and silver disks, 
sometimes enclosing a talisman, worn on the top of the head. 




80 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

Another bridal crown was called the dodos, and is probably the 
most ancient of them all ; a terra-cotta head has been found in 
Asia Minor, having a representation of the dodos encircled by a 
garland of flowers, which can scarcely be less than two thousand 
years old. This, however, was merely a tall foundation of paste- 
board covered with flowers, and serving to confine the bridal 
veil ; it was worn only during the wedding ceremonial, while the 
others, named above, were never laid aside. 

The veil constituted an important and very ancient feature of 
the Jewish bridal costume : it might be worn by the bride alone, 
or spread over the young couple at a certain point of the for- 
malities, as is the custom with modern Jews in the East. It is a 
curious illustration of the interference of the Rabbis in the 
minutiae of social life, that they interdicted the wearing of the 
bridal veil, for a while, after the destruction of Jerusalem. The 
wearing of crowns, a still more ancient custom, was also pro- 
hibited after a certain epoch in the wars of Jewry. The in- 
stance of Kebekah, veiling herself at the approach of Isaac, might 
be cited as proof of the antiquity of the use of bridal veils ; but 
the " veil," both in this text (Gen. xxiv. 65) and in that which 
describes Tamar as " she put her widow's garments off from her, 
and covered her with a veil" (Gen. xxxviii. 14) was a loose, 
flowing robe of some light diaphanous texture, which could 
readily be drawn up over the head. It is certain that the 
custom of veiling the face of women was not general in the 
patriarchal period, but has crept in under Mohammedan influ- 
ence. It is asserted that no representation of this article of dress 
is found on Egyptian or Assyrian sculptures ; yet it is well known 
that both Egyptians and Hebrews did make use of the veil on 
special occasions, when it became a significant addition to the 
costume. The veiling of the bride as she approached her bride- 
groom was a signal instance of this use of the veil, indicating her 
modesty as a virgin, and subjection as a wife. 

The wedding procession is a peculiar feature of ancient Orien- 
tal social customs, graphically alluded to in the familiar Parable 
of the Ten Virgins (Matt. xxv.). On the night appointed for the 
nuptials, the bridegroom, attended by his friends, with bands of 



MARRIAGE, WIDOWHOOD, AND DIVORCE. 81 

musicians, and bearers of lanterns and flaring torches, with songs 
and shoutings of joy, proceeds through the streets of the city to 
the home of the bride, — recalling to many a pious heart the 
words of Isaiah : "As the bridegroom rejoiceth over the bride, so 
shall thy God rejoice over thee." 

All whom they meet are expected to join in the procession, 
and add to the boisterous demonstrations, — so characteristic of 
ancient Oriental cities that the prophet, in summing up the 
tremendous consequences of idolatry among the chosen people, 
adds to them all this sisrnificant " word of the Lord : " " Then 




WEDDING PROCESSION. 



will I cause to cease from the cities of Judah, and from the 
streets of Jerusalem, the voice of mirth, and the voice of glad- 
ness, the voice of the bridegroom, and the voice of the bride : 
for the land shall be desolate " (Jer. vii. 34). 

But, long before the bridegroom reaches the house, the music 
and the shrill sounds of merry-making fill the night air, and 
announce his approach to the young maidens attendant upon the 
bride, who, in jo}^ul excitement, cry out one to another : " Behold, 
the bridegroom cometh ; go ye out to meet him ! " and in great 
haste they light theh lamps and their torches, and sally forth, 
singing and dancing, to meet the procession, Avhich they escort 
into the house. After a short interval for rest and refreshment, 
the gay company again take up the line of march, to return to 
the home of the bridegroom, but this time escorting the bride 
and her family and friends. 

A great abundance of light was an essential element in these 



82 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

midnight processions : hence the necessity, as exemplified in the 
parable, of carrying " vessels " of oil with which to replenish the 
lamps and torches. It was also customary to bear branches of 
palm and myrtle before the young pair, as symbols of joy and 
victory, while grain or small coins were scattered over them to 
bespeak their future prosperity. When the bridegroom reached 
his own house, " they that were ready went in with him to the 
marriage : and the door was shut." This was a necessary precau- 
tion, and obligatory in any case of private entertainment in the 
East, where the crowd offered a tempting opportunity for 
strangers to intrude themselves, A servant was stationed at 
the main entrance to receive guests who presented their tablets, 
or cards ; and after the company was assembled no one was 
admitted, no matter how importunate. So it will be seen that 
the Five Foolish Virgins, who " took no oil with them," added to 
that folly their unavailing entreaty : " Lord, Lord, open to us ! " 
The stringent character of this custom is equally insisted upon in 
one of the lessons of our Lord to the congregation in the syna- 
gogue : " When once the master of the house is risen up, and 
hath shut to the door, and ye begin to stand without, and to 
knock at the door, saying. Lord, Lord, open unto us ; and he 
shall answer and say unto you, I know you not whence ye are " 
(Luke xiii. 25). 

There is no mention, nor indirect evidence, of any religious 
ceremony in the marriages of the primitive Jewish people ; the 
simple removal of the bride from her parents' protection, to the 
home of the bridegroom or of his father, constituted the public 
acknowledgment of the assumed relation. The " benediction " 
and " cup of blessing," common to both the ceremony of be- 
trothal and that of marriage, in the days of the E.abbis, cannot 
be traced back to a very early date. 

The week of wedding festivities being over, there yet remained 
the " bridal days " to the young couple, which comprehended an 
entire month, like our modern honeymoon. The Mosaic law was 
especially indulgent in view of these interesting conditions, and 
provided that " when a man hath taken a new wife, he shall not 



MARRIAGE, WIDOWHOOD, AND DIVORCE. 



83 



go out to war, neither shall he be charged with any business : but 
he shall be free at home one year, and shall cheer up his wife 
w^hich he hath taken " (Dent. xxiv. 5). This enactment throws 
light upon the refusal of the one guest bidden to the Great Sup- 
per, who did not, like the others, " pray to be excused ; " but said, 
as if the plea were unanswerable, " I have married a wife, and 




therefore I cannot come ! " (Luke xiv. 20.) This generous dis- 
pensation for the bridegroom was extended even to the betrothed 
husband, who, in case of impending war, was thus addressed by 
the priest : " What man is there that hath betrothed a wife, and 
hath not taken her 1 Let him go and return unto his house, lest 
he die in the battle, and another man take her " (Dent. xx. 7). 
The young Hebrew, who has with so many demonstrations of 



84 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

joy brought his espoiLsed bride to her new home, is thus exhorted 
by the wise men of Israel : " Rejoice with the wife of thy youth. 
Let her be as the loving hmd and the pleasant roe ; . . . and 
be thou ravished always with her love" (Prov. v. 18, 19); and, 
again: "Live joyfully with the wife whom thou lovest all the 
days of the life of thy vanity, which he hath given thee under 
the sun " (Eccles. ix. 9). He is assured that " whoso findeth a 
wife, findeth a good thing, and obtaineth favor of the Lord ; " 
while the little " Song of degrees " (Ps. cxxviii.) is in itself a 
picture of a happy marriage crowned with the blessing of the 
Almighty : " Blessed is every one that feareth the Lord ; that 
walketh in his ways. For thou shalt eat the labor of thine 
hands : happy shalt thou be, and it shall be well with thee. Thy 
wife shall be as a fruitful vine by the sides of thine house ; thy 
children like olive-plants round about thy table. Behold, that 
thus shall the man be blessed that feareth the Lord. The Lord 
shall bless thee out of Zion : and thou shalt see the good of 
Jerusalem all the days of thy life. Yea, thou shalt see thy 
children's children, and peace upon Israel." For a later genera- 
tion, the Apostle Paul sums up the whole duty of those who 
have entered the married state, in this comprehensive axiom : 
" Let every one of you in particular so love his wife even as 
himself; and the wife see that she reverence her husband" (Eph. 
V. -33). The same apostle precedes this admonition with the 
words: " So ought men to love their wives as their own bodies," 
— a sentiment apparently suggested by the following from the 
Talmud : " He that loveth his wife as his own body, honoreth 
her more than his own body, brings up his children in the 
right way, and leads them in it to full age, — of him the Scrip- 
ture saith : ' Thou shalt know that thy tabernacle shall be in 
peace ' (Job v. 24)." With a beginning so auspicious for a happy 
conjugal union, it is not pleasant to reflect for what trivial causes 
this hallowed compact might be dissolved, and the family ties 
irrevocably broken. This was especially true in the time of 
Christ, notwithstanding the fact that Rabbinical legislation had 
declared for the rights of the wife, even thous^h the meanest of 



MARRIAGE, WIDOWHOOD, AND DIVORCE. 



85 



Jewish slaves. The popular feeling on this vexed question of 
divorce is disclosed by the circumstance that it formed the subject 
of special inquhy to the Great Teacher, not only on the part of 




the intolerant and jealous Pharisees, but of His own disciples. 
When Jesus had come " into the coasts of Judeea beyond Jordan," 
" the Pharisees also came unto him, tempting him, and saying 
unto him, Is it laAvful for a man to put away his wife for every 



86 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

cause ? And he answered, and said unto them, Have ye not read, 
that he which made them at the beginning made them male and 
female, and said. For this cause shall a man leave father and 
mother, and shall cleave to his wife : and they twain shall be one 
flesh. Wherefore they are no more twain, but one flesh. What 
therefore God hath joined together, let not man put asunder. 
They say unto him, Why did Moses then command to give a writ- 
ing of divorcement, and to put her away "? He saith unto them, 
Moses because of the hardness of your hearts suflered you to put 
away your wives : but from the beginning it was not so " (Matt, 
xix. 3-8) ; and He added to this comprehensive demonstration of 
the whole subject, the one cause, only, for which a man might 
righteously divorce his wife. " In the house his disciples asked 
him again of the same matter" (Mark x. 10), evidently amazed 
at their Lord's reply ; from which they promptly drew the conclu- 
sion, that, "if the case of the man be so with his wife, it is not 
good to marry" (Matt. xix. 10). 

The Mosaic law briefly enacted, that " when a man hath taken 
a wife, and married her, and it come to pass that she find no 
favor in his eyes, . . . then let him write her a bill of divorce- 
ment, and give it in her hand, and send her out of his house " 
(Deut. xxiv. 1) ; while the sole compensation granted to the wife 
was implied in her permission to marry another man. In later 
days, on the contrary, under Rabbinical supremacy, the wife 
could obtain a divorce on absurdly trivial grounds : as, for 
instance, that her husband was engaged in an offensive trade, 
such as that of a tanner or a fuller or a coppersmith ; or that 
he had become afflicted with disease. Our Lord points to this 
possibility as a common practice, when He says, " If a wife shall 
put away her husband" (Mark x. 12); and the Apostle Paul, in 
discussing the subject to the Christian Church at Corinth, shows 
plainly that it was quite optional with the wife, at least of an 
"unbelieving" husband, to " depart" from him, with or without 
a formal divorce, — only it was stipulated, " let her remain un- 
married " (1 Cor. vii. 10-16). 

But without some knowledge of the gross, debasing immorality 



MARRIAGE, WIDOWHOOD, AND DIVORCE. 



87 



of pagan society in the days of the apostles, we shall fail to 
appreciate the wisdom of St. Paul's counsel on the vital topics of 
marriage and divorce — especially his exhortation: "Be ye not 
unequally yoked together with unbe- 
lievers "... for " what concord hath 
Christ with Belial?" (2 Cor. vi. 14.) 
Tertullian contrasts a Christian union 
with a mixed marriage ; and in por- 
traying the serious evils and hinder- 
ances to a pious life, which the con- 
verted wife encounters in the latter, he 
affords us indirectly a graphic picture 
of the manners of that time : " When 
the wife wishes to attend worship, her 
husband makes an appointment for the 
baths. Instead of hymns she hears 
songs ; and his songs are from the 
theatre, the tavern, and the night- 
cellar. Her fasts are hindered by his 
feasts. He is sure to object against 
nocturnal services, prison visits, the 
kiss of peace, and other customs. She 
wall have a difficulty in persuading him 
that such private observances as cross- 
ing and exsufflation are not magical 
rites." 

It is true, that, under the Rabbinical 
dispensation, no " brother" or " sister" 
need be " under bondage " to live 
together after a change had taken 
place in the religious faith of either; 
but that was not according to the strict 
letter of the law : and when the apos- 
tle, " himself a Pharisee, and the son 

of a Pharisee," writes to the converts from Judaism at Rome, " to 
them that know the law," he elucidates the new doctrine by that 




88 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

law in regard to the marriage-bond : " The woman which hath a 
husband is bound by the law to her husband so long as he liveth ; 
but if the husband be dead, she is loosed from the law of her 
husband" (Rom. vii. 2). The wife had no power of herself to 
be freed from that law : according to the Jewish axiom that " a 
woman is ' loosed from the law of her husband ' by only one of 
two things, — death, or a letter of divorce." 

In view of what appears to be the fatal facility with which 
wives could be put away with a bill of divorcement, it certainly 
speaks well for constancy of conjugal attachment among the early 
Hebrews, and for the popular sentiment with regard to the 
sanctity of the marriage bond, that there is no case of positive 
divorce recorded in the Old Testament. Indeed, the " mind of 
the Sphit," throughout both Old and New, declares for monog- 
amy, as well as for the indivisibility of " that which God hath 
joined together." Those cruder and less worthy conditions in 
which the holy relation of marriage is found to have existed, in 
the various developments of national and spiritual life, both 
among the Jews and their Gentile neighbors, seem to have been 
temporary concessions made to the blindness and " hardness " of 
their hearts ; but "from the beginning it was not so," — not in 
that happy day in Eden when the Lord God " made a woman, 
and brought her unto the man " (Gen. ii. 22) ; nor will it be 
"so" in that glorious consummation of "things hoped for:" 
when " the marriage of the Lamb is come, and his wife hath 
made herself ready " ! (Rev. xix. 7). What the inspired religious 
feeling on this subject was, even in the days of the prophets, it 
is easy to conjecture from an extract from one of them, the last : 
a pathetic representation of the altar of the Lord as covered 
" with tears, with weeping, and Avith crying out." And when the 
people ask of the prophet the reason of this, he answers : " Be- 
cause the Lord hath been witness between thee and the wife of 
thy youth, against whom thou hast dealt treacherously : yet is she 
thy companion, and the wife of thy covenant. . . . And Avhere- 
fore one? That he might seek a godly seed. Therefore take 
heed to your spirit, and let none deal treacherously against the 



MARRIAGE, WIDOWHOOD, AND DIVORCE. 91 

wife of his youth. For the Lord, the God of Israel, saith that 
he hateth putting away" (Mai. ii. 14-16). A beautiful para- 
phrase by the Rabbis, of this passage of Scripture, has been 
translated by Dr. Sachs : — 

' ' If death hath suatched from thee the wife of youth, 
It is as if the sacred city were. 
And e'en the Temple, in thy pilgrim days, 
Defiled, laid low, and levelled with the dust. 
The man who harshly sends away from him 
His first- wooed wife, — the loving wife of youth, 
For him the very altar of the Lord 
Sheds forth its tears of bitter agony." 





lY. 

CHILDREN: TEEIR TRAININQ AND SCHOOLINa. 

% HE eager expectation with which Israel waited for the 
^Sr^ promised Messiah, and the pecuhar hope of each tribe 
or family that " from among their brethren " the 
divine " Prophet " should be " raised up " (Deut. xviii. 
18), made a numerous offspring the coveted blessing of 
every home. No graver misfortune could befall a Hebrew 
than to die childless ; to such a one, when dead, his neighbors 
applied the sad lament of Jeremiah : " Weep sore for him that 
goeth away, for he shall return no more " (xxii. 10) : the childless 
man, alive and in health, was said in common parlance to be 
already dead ; while the cry of every barren wife was voiced in 
that of Rachel: " Give me children, or else I die ! " (Gen. xxx. 1.) 
It is not without significance, as demonstrating the tenderness 
of parental affection among the Hebrews, that, beside the general 
terms hen and hath (son and daughter), they employed nine words 
for "child," expressive of its successive states of development. 
The yeled (as used in the second chapter of Exodus, in the touch- 
ing story of the infant Moses) was the newly-born babe ; yonek is 
hterally suckling; olel signified the baby still at the breast, but 
beginning to eat and to "ask bread" (Lam. iv. 4). Gamw? was 
the two-or-three-year-old child already weaned ; while Tarph, the 
" quickly stepping," indicated the merry restlessness of an older 
child, free from the nurse's arms ; elem, " the strong," a sturdy 
boy, old enough to be of use in the household ; such a lad it was 
to whom Jonathan said, " Kun, find out now the arrows which I 
shoot" (1 Sam. xx. 36); almah, the term denoting the girl-child 
of this period, is the word used in the text so full of devout 



childrp:n: their training and schooling 



93 



interest for all Christians • " Therefore the Lord himself shall 
give you a sign ; Behold, a virgin shall conceive, and bear a son, 
and shall call his name Immanuel " (Isa. vii. 14) ; next comes 
the naar, the manly youth entitled to a degree of freedom and 




THE STAR IN THE EAST. 



self-dependence ; lastly, bachur, the fully-developed young man of 
marriageable age, and qualified for military service. 

The fii'stborn son of every Jewish family was regarded with 
peculiar homage and affection, as the child set apart by command 
of God to be sanctified to Him. " Because all the firstborn are 
mine ; for on the day that I smote all the firstborn in the land 



94 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

of Egypt I hallowed unto me all the firstborn m Israel, both 
man and beast" (Num. iii. 13). Thus the "firstborn" is one of 
the " thirteen things " enumerated by one of the most learned 
Rabbinical commentators, as being in the " sole ownership of the 
Holy One." He enjoyed special privileges over his brothers, 
exercising a certain authority among them ; he received a double 
portion of the inheritance ; and, in the absence or death of the 
father, he ofiiciated as priest of the family. This sacerdotal 
dignity, however, no longer pertained to him after the priesthood 




was delegated exclusively to the tribe of Levi : after that, the 
firstborn son was redeemed with a certain sum of money (five 
shekels, about two and a half dollars of our currency), which 
became a part of the sacred revenue throughout succeeding 
generations. The paternal blessing was an important feature of 
the birthright ; which, however, could be withheld if the son 
proved unworthy, or transferred by the heir if he could be 
induced to part with a possession so sacred for a consideration. 
Perhaps no story of the Bible is better known than that which 
illustrates this sale of the father's blessing (Gen. xxv. 31). 

The sons inherited their father's property at his death, to the 
exclusion of the daughters ; but they were bound to support their 
sisters, however serious the inconvenience or loss to themselves, 
and in later times to provide a dowry for each, amounting to the 
tenth part of the entire inheritance. When Jacob represented 
to his wives the necessity of his leaving Laban their father, 
" Rachel and Leah answered and said unto him. Is there yet any 



CHILDREN: THEIR TRAINING AND SCHOOLING. 95 

portion or inlicritance for us in our father's house ? Are we not 
counted of him strangers ? for he hath sold us, and hath quite 
devoiu-ed also our money" (Gen. xxxi. 14, 15) ; and it is recorded 
of Job as an extraordinary departure from common usage, that 
he gave his daughters " inheritance among their brethren " 
(Job xlii. 15). 

AVhere there were only daughters, the father's goods were 
distributed equally among them, according to the law which 
reads : " If a man die, and have no son, then ye shall cause his 
inheritance to pass unto his daughter" (Num. xxvii. 8). But 
the daughters thus inheriting their father's estate were bound to 
marry within his own tribe. By Roman law also, the property was 
entailed on the sons at the father's death : and in certain Oriental 
lands the sons could demand a division of the estate during the 
father's lifetime, as described in the parable of the Prodigal Son ; 
this Avas sometimes done among the Romans. These matters of 
family inheritance were fixed by law : there were no wills, and 
no need of any ; for the inborn reverence for the law and for 
paternal authority would have made the modern device of 
" breaking" an obnoxious will a monstrous impossibility to a 
Hebrew son or daughter. 

The birth of this much-desired son and heir was naturally an 
event of the utmost excitement and joy to every Oriental family. 
Its announcement was delegated to some favorite servant, who, 
waiting near the private apartments of his mistress, caught the 
fii'st intimation of the happy event, and ran to inform his 
master. The afflicted prophet, in the bitterness of his soul, 
refers to this servant when he cries: "Cursed be the man 
who brought tidings to my father, saying, A man child is born 
unto thee; makmg him very glad" (Jer. xx. 15). In Persia 
this interesting office was endowed with certain perquisites : 
the confidential servant attached to the harem, being the first to 
receive the information, ran to his expectant master exclaiming, 
" Mujdeh, Miijdeh ! " " Good news ! " which entitled him to a 
considerable gift, xlmong the lower classes it was customary 
for the bearer of such happy tidmgs to seize upon the cap or 



96 



HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 



shawl of the father, who was expected to redeem it Avith a 
present. 

The birth of a son was an occasion of great joy to the Oriental 
mother as well, for other reasons than the gratification of her 
strong maternal love : it established her position in her husband's 
home and affections, and reconciled him to her if for any cause 
she had failed to secure his preference. Thus the despised Leah 
rejoiced at the birth of her son, the firstborn of Jacob, saying, 
" Now, therefore, rtiy husband will love me ! " 




CHAPEL OF 



IT BETHLEHEM. 



So Hannah prayed in the house of the Lord in Shiloh, after the 
birth of Samuel, offering her psalm of exultant thanksgi^dng : 
'• My heart rejoiceth in the Lord, mine horn is exalted in the 
Lord ; my mouth is enlarged over mine enemies ; because I 
rejoice in thy salvation" (1 Sam. ii. 1). So Sarah rejoiced at the 
birth of the child of promise, when she was well stricken in 
years, saying : " God hath made me to laugh, so that all that 



CHILDREN: THEIR TRAINING AND SCHOOLING. 



99 




SHKIXE OF THE ANNUNCIATION AT 
NAZARETH. 



hear will laugh with me. And she said, Who would have said 
unto Abraham, that Sarah should have given children suck 1 for 
I have borne him a son in his old age " (Gen. xxi. 6, 7). And 
so, Avhen the venerable Elisabeth brought forth him who was to 
" prepare the way " of the 
Messiah, " her neighbors and 
her cousins heard how the 
Lord had showed great mercy 
upon her ; and they rejoiced 
with her " (Luke i. 58 ;) while 
the Magnificat of the Blessed 
Mary, as she " entered into 
the house of Zacharias, and 
saluted Elisabeth" her kins- 
woman, is an outpouring of 
joy in the Holy Ghost, almost 
too sacred to be enumerated 
among merely human experi- 
ences : " And Mary said. My soul doth magnify the Lord, and 
my spirit hath rejoiced in God my Saviour. For he hath 
regarded the low estate of his handmaiden : for, behold, from 
henceforth all generations shall call me blessed" (Luke i. 46-55). 

The new-born Hebrew baby was washed in salted water, or 
rubbed with salt, to harden the skin, and impart vigor to the 
body, not perhaps without reference to the purity and incorrup- 
tion in which it Avas both an active agent and the symbol. When 
the prophet was commanded to depict the abominations of Jeru- 
salem, he did so " under the similitude of a wretched infant," 
and, as such, addressed the backslidden city: " Li the day thou 
Avast born," thou wast not " washed in water to supple thee ; thou 
wast not salted at all, nor swaddled at all " (Ezek. xvi. 4). 

The " SAvaddling clothes," in which it is recorded that the 
Virgin Mother wrapped her divine Babe (Luke ii. 7), and which 
were specified by the angel to the shepherds : " This shall be a 
sign unto you: Ye shall find the babe wrapped in swaddling 
clothes, lying in a manger" (Luke ii. 12), Avere in common use 



100 



HOME-LIP^E IN THE BIBLE. 



at that time thi-oiighout the East, and are even to this day : they 
were bandages some thi-ee or four inches in width, and about 
three yards long, which were firmly wound around the newly- 
born from the neck to the feet, including the arms, which were 
confined to its sides. Thus swaddled, the baby could not move 
hand or foot ; but it Avas considered necessary to support the frail 
bones in this manner until they had acquired substance and firm- 
ness. For a child of high rank these bandages were often very 
elegant and expensive : fine white shawls or silk scarfs confined 



^= 




BETHLEHEM. 



with a gold band sometimes answered this purpose ; the poor 
used strips of common cotton or linen goods. In a superb meta- 
phor, descriptive of the creation of the sea, Job refers to this 
well-known practice : " When I made the cloud the garment 
thereof, and thick darkness a swaddling band for it" (xxxviii. 9). 
The description by a modern lady traveller of a baby she saw in 
Bethlehem may not be inappropriate : " I took the little creature 
in my arms. His body was stifi" and unyielding, so tightly was it 
swathed with white and purple linen. His hands and feet Avere 
quite confined ; and his head Avas bound Avith a small, soft, red 



CHILDREN: THEIR TRAINING AND SCHOOLING. 



101 



shawl, which passed under his chin and 
across his forehead in small folds." ^ 

On the eighth day the infant son of a 
Hebrew received the rite of chcunicision, 
according to God's covenant with Abraham, 
in which it was commanded, " he that is 
eight days old shall be chcumcised among 
yon, every man child in your generations, 
he that is born in the house, or bought with 
money of any stranger, Avhich is not of thy 
seed" (Gen. xvii. 12). At a later period 
the ceremony took place in the father's 
house or in the synagogue, the godmother 
providing the officiator. Tavo chairs were 
placed, one for the godfather who held the 
child, the other for the Prophet Elijah, who 
was supposed to be invisibly present. It 
was customary to name the child at this 
important ceremony ; and the Rabbis ex- 
plain the custom by the fact that God 
changed the names of Abram and Sarai 
at the time He instituted the rite (Gen. 
xvii. 5, 15). Girls were named by the 
minister of the synagogue a month after 
birth. In the old, old story of the birth 
of our Lord we recall this custom : " When 
eight days were accomplished for the cir- 
cumcising of the child, his name was called 
Jesus, which was so named of the angel 
before he was conceived in the Avomb" 
(Luke ii. 21) ; and a more detailed account 
in the case of St. John the Baptist : " It 
came to pass, that on the eighth da}- they 
came to circumcise the child ; and they 
called him Zacharias, after the name of 

1 Miss Rogers's Domestic Life in Palestine. 



102 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

his father. And his mother answered and said, Not so ; but he 
shall be called John. And they said unto her, There is none 
of thy kindred that is called by this name. And they made signs 
to his father, how he would have him called. And he asked 
for a writing-table, and wrote, saying, His name is John. And 
they marvelled all " (Luke i. 59-63). 

Other nations had certain name-days for their children, that 
TertuUian terms Nominalia : the Romans named their sons on 
the ninth day, their daughters on the eighth. The Greeks 
named the newly-born child on the tenth day ; but on the fifth day 
the nurse with the child in her arms walked about a ceremonial 
fii-e, as a means of purification both for herself and the child. 
The Athenians gave names on the tenth day. The Persians 
appointed a certain night for naming a child. If the father 
could aff"ord it he made a feast, and invited his friends, together 
with several priests. The infant was brought into the assembled 
company : five names were written upon separate slips of paper, 
which were placed within the leaves of the Koran. The first 
chapter of the Koran was read: then one of the slips of paper 
was drawn out at random by the father ; and the priest, having 
read it, pronounced it in the ear of the child, placing the written 
name upon the swaddling clothes. The relatives gave money 
and other presents to the little one on this occasion. 

All Oriental people, but especially the Jews, were fond of 
names with significations: indeed, it is doubtful if any pure 
Hebrew name is lacking in that distinctive feature. A few 
instances taken from Bible story will suffice to illustrate this 
interesting matter : When Leah, the hated wife of Jacob, bore a 
son, " she called his name Reuben " (A son, I see /) ; " for she said, 
Surely the Lord hath looked upon my affliction. " The second son 
she named Simeon (a hearing), " because the Lord hath heard 
that I was hated ; " the third son she called Levi {joining), and 
said, " Now this time will my husband he joined unto me, because 
I have borne him three sons ; " at the birth of the fourth son 
" she said. Now will I praise the Lord : therefore she called his 
name Judah " (praise) (Gen. xxix. 32-35). 



CHILDREX: THEIR TRAINING AND SCHOOLING. 



103 



So the pious Hannah named her son, given in answer to 
prayer, Samnel (asked of God) ; Saul, the Hebrew form of the 
name of the great apostle to the Gentiles, has the same signifi- 
cation (desired, asked for) ; David (beloved) ; Absalom (father of 
jieace) ; John (beloved of God), identical with Johanan (to whom 
God is merciful) ; Peter (a rock) — " On this rock will I build my 
Church ; " and finally, that Xame which is far above " every name 




that is named, not only in this Avorld, but also in that which is to 
come ; " " for there is none other name under heaven given 
among men, Avhereby we must be saved," — Jesus (Saviour) : 
•■ for He shall save His people from their sins." 

The names bestowed upon daughters disclose a far different 
state of feeling, and usually express those personal charms and 
qualities most desired for this sex. Of Job's beautiful daughters, 
of whom it is recorded that, " In all the land were no women 



104 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

found so fair," it is also said, " He called the name of the first 
Jemima" (bright as the day); "and tlie name of the second 
Kezia " (cassia, one of the choicest spices) ; '■ and the name of the 
third Keren-happuch " (horn of the eye-paint, or of beauty). The 
exquisite grace and beauty of the palm-tree, Tamar, made it a 
favorite name with tlie ancients, as Solomon sings of the " fau-est 
among women : " " Thy stature is like to a palm-tree." In the 
Old Testament there are three notable instances of women who 
bore this name, — the daughter-in-law of Judah, the sister and 
the daughter of Absalom : the beauty of the last two is spe- 
cially mentioned, and is easily accredited to the near relation they 
bore to that son of David who was the handsomest man of his 
day. The name given to the only daughter of Jacob and Leah, 
Dinah (avenged), seems to have been strangely prophetic of her 
remarkable story (Gen. xxx. 21) ; Eebekah (a cord unth a noose, 
enchaining) expresses the spell of beauty by which she won her 
husband's heart at fii'st sight ; Deborah (a bee) portrays the cheer- 
fully busy housewife; Sarah (princess); Abigail (source of joy); 
Susanna (a lily) ; Hannah (grace) ; Esther (star) ; Ruth (friend or 
beauty) ; Naomi (my delight) — " Call me not Naomi," said the 
childless Avidow of this name, on her return to Bethlehem, the 
home of her youth : " Call me not Naom.i, but call me Mara 
(bitter) ; for the Almighty hath dealt very bitterly with me " 
(Ruth i. 30). Adam called his wife's nam.e Eve, because she was 
"the mother of all living" (Gen. iii. 20). But how shall we 
reconcile the signification of the name of the " second Eve," the 
Blessed Mary, with the nature of her who bore it, " full of 
grace," and richly adorned with that " meek and quiet spirit, 
which is in the sight of God of great price "^ (1 Pet. iii. 4.) 
" Mary " is said to correspond Avith the name Miriam of the Old 
Testament, Avhich signifies rebellion ! But here we prefer to 
believe of the scientists of the nomenclature of the Bible, that 
somebody has blundered. 

According to Mosaic law, the mother brought prescribed 
ofl^'erings to the priest (forty days after the birth of a son, and 
eighty days after the birth of a daughter), Avho offered them 



CHILDREN: THEIR TRAINING AND SCHOOLING. 



105 



before the Lord. If her means sufficed, she brought a himb of 
the fii-st year, and a young pigeon or a turtle-dove ; but " if she 
be not able to bring a lamb, then she shall bring two turtles or 
XTvO young pigeons " (Lev. xii. 8). So we read of the Virgin 
Mother and her Child : 

" AVhen the days of ^ f^ 

her purification accord- 
mg to the law of Moses 
were accomplished, they 
brought him to Jerusa- 
lem, to present him to 
the Lord;" "And to 
offer a sacrifice accord- 
ing to that which is said 
in the law of the Lord, 
A pair of turtle-doves, 
or two young pigeons " 
(Luke ii. 22, 24). She, 
who for her own puri- 
fying was " not able to 
bring a lamb," held in 
her bosom that Immacu- 
late Lamb destined to 

be offered for " the sin of the world ; " nor could she yet haA^e 
sufficiently pondered " all these things " in her heart, — that ten- 
der heart to be pierced through as with a sword also, — else she 
might have whispered to her divine Babe, with Abraham of old, 
" My son, God will provide himself a lamb for a burnt-offering." 
It was a pious custom of the Jews to bring their young children 
to men noted for sanctity, to invoke their blessing and their 
prayers. On the day that the little one was one year old, it was 
usually taken to the synagogue to receive the solemn benediction 
of the presiding Rabbi. In accordance with this usage, there 
were brought unto Jesus " little children, that he should put his 
hands on them, and pray: and the disciples rebuked them." 
" But when Jesus saw it, he was much displeased, and said unto 




TURTLE DOVE. 



106 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

them, Suffer the little children to come unto me, and forbid them 
not ; for of such is the kingdom of God. And he took them up 
in his arms, put his hands upon them, and blessed them " (Matt, 
xix. 13 ; Mark x. U, 16). 

How sweetly and graciously does the Italian poet Filicaja find 
expression for the maternal quality, of wisdom blended with 
tenderness, displayed in the " love divine, all love excelling " ! 

"Just as a mother, with sweet pious face, 

Yearns toward her little children from her seat. 
Gives one a kiss, another an embrace, 

Takes this upon her knees, that on her feet ; 
And while from actions, looks, complaints, pretences, 

She learns their feelings and their various will, 
To this a glance, to that a word dispenses, 

And, whether stern or smiling, loves them still : — 
So Providence for us, high, infinite. 

Makes our necessities its watchful task ; 

Heai-kens to all our prayers, helps all our wants ; 
And, e'en if it denies what seems our right, 
Either denies because 'twould have us ask, 
Or seems but to deny, or in denying grants." 

It is to the praise of Eastern mothers, that, whatever their 
rank, they delegated to no one the sacred office of nursing their 
infant children ; and it was the practice to prolong this function 
until the child was two years and a half or three years-old. It 
was a very ancient family custom to celebrate the weanmg of a 
child by a festive gathering of friends, and an entertainment 
according to the means of the father : Abraham the mighty 
patriarch, for instance, " made a great feast the same day that 
Isaac was weaned" (Gen. xxi. 8). And when Hannah had 
weaned her son Samuel, " she took him up Avith her, with three 
bullocks, and one ephah of flour, and a bottle of wine, and 
brought him unto the house of the Lord in Shiloh " (1 Sam. 
i. 24). A " daily portion " was allotted to the Levites, set apart 
for the service of the Temple, " from three years old and up- 
ward ; " hence it is inferred that the child Samuel was weaned at 



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THE OFFERING. 



CHILDREN: THEIR TRAINING AND SCHOOLING. 109 

that age, and, being entered by his mother upon his life of con- 
secration, "he ministered unto the Lord before Eli" (1 Sam. 
iii. 1). 

The nurse was a very important personage in an Eastern 
family : there are repeated examples in the Bible of the esteem 
in which she was held, as well as of her own devotion that 
inspired it. Rebekah's nurse Deborah accompanied the young 
bride to Canaan; and when the faithful old servant died, having 
nursed her mistress's children's children, she was buried with 
heartfelt mourning under the Allon-bachuth, the " oak of weep- 
ing," near Bethel. When E,uth bore a son to Boaz, her mother- 
in-law, " Naomi, took the child, and laid it in her bosom, and 
became nurse unto it." 

In times of rebellion and anarchy it was not unusual for the 
reigning family to put their entire trust for the safety of the 
young heir in the fidelity and affection of his nurse : thus was 
Mephibosheth, son of Jonathan, saved by the courage of his 
foster-mother ; and Joash, the last of the royal seed of the house 
of Judah, was ^rescued from massacre, and hidden for six years 
with his nurse in the Temple, until he came to the throne of his 
father. 

Several modes of carrying young children are described in 
the Bible ; and we find two of them specially mentioned in the 
prophetic utterance of God to His ancient Church, in which He 
declares of the Gentiles that " they shall bring thy sons in their 
arms, and thy daughters shall be carried upon their shoulders. 
And kings shall be thy nursing fathers, and their queens thy 
nursing mothers" (Isa. xlix. 23). "In their arms" may be 
rendered, as in the margin, bosom, — that is to say, the baggy 
folds of the outer garment, overlaying the girdle, making a snug, 
soft bed for the little one. This disposition of children is indi- 
cated in the case of Naomi, who laid Huth's baby " in her 
bosom ; " and the custom is alluded to by Moses, when, weary of 
the complaints of the Israelites, he cries to the Lord, and asks, 
Are these my children, " that Thou shouldest say unto me. Carry 
them in thy bosom, as a nursing father beareth the sucking child, 



no 



HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 




unto the land which thou 
swarest unto theh fathers 1 " 
(Num. xi. 12.) When old 
enough to sit upright with 
safety, the child was carried 
between the shoulders, Avith 
its little legs around the 
nurse's neck ; or on one 
shoulder, usually the left, 
with one leg hanging down 
the back, and the other on 
the breast. In either of 
these cases the child held on 
to its bearer's head, and 
clung fast with its feet. Still 
another mode for young in- 
fants was to carry them 
astride the hips : reference to 
this particular custom is sup- 
posed to be found in the 
words, " Thy daughters shall 
be nursed at thy side " (Isa. ' 
Ix. 4). Illustrations of East- 
ern manners represent nurs- 
ing babies in a sort of basket- 
cradle, borne on the backs 
of poor mothers, probably on 
their way to daily labor in 
the field or vineyard. 

The only mention in the 
Bible of the sports in vogue 
among the children is made 
by Christ to exemplify the 
peculiar perverseness of the 
Jews at the time of His 
visitation : " And the Lord 



CHILDREN: THEIR TRAINING AND SCHOOLING. Ill 

said, "NATiereunto then shall I liken the men of this generation ? 
and to what are they like ? They are like unto childi-en sitting 
in the market-place, and calling one to another, and saying, We 
have piped unto you, and ye have not danced ; we have mourned 
to you, and ye have not wept" (Luke vii. 31, 32). From these 
few words we may be confirmed in the tradition that children are 
the same, not only aU the world over, but in every age. These 
children, of whom our Lord speaks, were of the common people, 
familiar "with the ordinary street scenes and sounds of an Oriental 
city ; and for the child to reproduce these in his play was as 
natural in the days before the Flood as it is at this moment. The 
boisterous mirth, with dancing and music, — " the voice of 
harpers . . . and of pipers and trumpeters," — of the wedding 
processions, had often waked them out of sleep, to run to the 
housetop for a view of all the bravery of the show, — the glare 
of torches, the gorgeous dresses of the company ; so, too, the 
melancholy, ghostlike march of mourners, following a bier, in 
garments of sackcloth, with weeping and wailing, was a scene 
that impressed itself with equal vividness upon the youthful 
imagination, busy with all its weird and awful suggestiveness. 
The text shows us these boys of the streets, " sitting in the 
market-place," and remonstrating with some perverse and perhaps 
dyspeptic playmates, for whom they had played at wedding and 
at funeral, but in vain — the fun for the day was spoiled. The 
prophet, foretelling the joyful restoration of Jerusalem, enumer- 
ates among its external signs of peace and gladness, that " the 
streets of the city shall be full of boys and ghls playing in 
the streets thereof" (Zech. viii. 5). We are told that Sardis, the 
seat of one of the seven churches in Asia, was celebrated for the 
manufacture of children's toys : the neighborhood of this ancient 
city, as well as other parts of Western Asia, has yielded a great 
variety of the remains of its wares in this department, and in a 
tolerable state of preservation. They consist of mimic represen- 
tations of animals, fowls, birds, asses with pack-saddles, dolls with 
arms and legs made movable on strings, whistles and marbles. 
The rums and tombs of Egypt have also afforded many remains 



112 



HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 



of these interesting objects. A conspicuous feature of antique 
toys — and one upon which we can congratulate ourselves of the 
nineteenth century, that it is quite impossible to this day of a 
better charity — were comic figures and caricatures of wretched 
hunchbacks, deformed negroes, and even idiots ! together with 
mythological monstrosities, and grotesques born of nightmare 
horrors. There was doubtless a certain scruple among the Jews 
— as there was among the Mohammedans in later times — as to 
the representation of living things, prohibited by the law ; and 
it is not probable that it was set aside for the amusement of their 
children. Happily, we need not waste sympathy on the ancient 
young folks for this apparently sad state of things in their nurse- 
ries ; for the Eastern child was, no more than the Western, 
dependent upon mere externals for the " properties " of its every- 
day drama called play, — nor could be while with bewitched eyes 
it beheld a prancing steed in some withered branch, or a " love 
of a doll " in a cotton napkin tied about with a string. 

Outside of the home circle, it is certain that the Jewish youth 
had no public games, such as the young Greeks and Romans 
delighted and excelled in. Indeed, these diversions were so 
opposed to the grave religious bias of the Hebrew character, that 
they were regarded with 
intense aversion, as cal- 
culated to undermine 
social morals. In New 
Testament times, when 
theatres and amphithea- 
tres were erected in 
Jerusalem and other 
large cities by Herod 
the Great, the Jewish 
residents considered it 

disreputable to be present at these popular places of amusement, — 
much more so to take part in their spectacles. The Talmud 
records that a celebrated E-abbi was wont every day, on leaving 
the Academy, to pray in these terms : " I thank Thee, O Lord my 




CORINTHIAN GAMES. 
[From a Sculpture.] 



CHILDREN: THEIR TRAINING AND SCHOOLING. 113 

God, that Thou hast cast my lot among those who frequent the 
schools and synagogues, and not among those who attend the 
theatre and circus. For both I and they work and Avatch, — I 
to mherit eternal life, they for then- destruction." Nevertheless, 
the development by training of the physical powers could not 
have been wholly neglected ; for professional runners were em- 
ployed as swift messengers from the battle-field or other points 
of excited interest. In connection with the great victory of the 
Philistines over Israel, one of these messengers is mentioned: 
•' There ran a man of Benjamin out of the army, and came to 
Shiloh the same day with his clothes rent, and with earth upon 
his head" (1 Sam. iv. 12) ; and again where David is Avaiting for 
tidings of his beloved but rebellious son Absalom, the watchman, 




WRESTLERS. 
[From a Sculpture.] 



noting the two racers, cried from the " roof over the gate : " " Me- 
thinketh the running of the foremost is like the running of 
Ahimaaz the son of Zadok. And the king said, He is a good 
man, and cometh with good tidings " (2 Sam. xviii. 27). In the 
" match" between the servants of David and those of the son of 
Saul at the pool of Gibeon : " Abner said to Joab, Let the young 
men now arise, and play before us. . . . And they caught every 
one his fellow by the head, and thrust his sword in his fellow's 
side ; so they fell doAvn together " (2 Sam. ii. 14, 16) ; and in the 
subsequent events of this encounter, begun apparently in good 
faith and ending hi a mortal combat, it is recorded of one of the 
'• three sons of Zeruiah," who were engaged in it, that " Asahel 
was as lio;ht of foot as a wild roe." 



114 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

The Psalmist depicts the sun as a bridegroom coming out of 
his chamber, " and rejoiceth as a strong man to run a race " 
(Ps. xix. 5) ; while the Preacher " saw under the sun, that the 
race is not to the swift" (Eccl. ix. 11). There are many texts in 
Scripture setting forth so much dexterity in the use of the bow 
and the string as to imply a course of private, if not pubHc, train- 
ing and competition. Of the tribe of Benjamin it is written: 
" Among all this people there were seven hundi-ed chosen men 
left-handed ; every one could sling stones at a hair-breadth, and 
not miss" (Judg. xx. 16); and of the " mighty men, helpers of 
the war," who came to David at Ziklag, it is recorded . " They 
were armed with bows, and could use both the right hand and 
the left in hurling stones and shooting arrows out of a bow" 
(1 Chron. xii. 2). 

The early Christians had good reason to shun and abhor those 
high seats of heathen amusement, wherein their brethren in the 
faith, in days of persecution, had been compelled to profess " a 
good profession before many witnesses," sealing it with their own 
blood, — 

" Butchered to make a Roman holiday ! " 

What with the Jewish prejudice and the Christian horror of 
these public exhibitions, it is difficult to account for St. Paul's 
evident familiarity with the rules and customs pertaining to them, 
and his proneness to making metaphorical use of them in his 
epistles to the early Church. In his native city there was a 
gymnasium (a place for training) and a stadium (a ground for 
running), with both of which he must have been familiar in 
his early youth; while the famous Isthmian ganies were cele- 
brated near Corinth, where he lived for some time. In the 
well-known text beginning, " None of these things move me " 
(Acts XX. 24), the concluding words, " finish my course," are 
equivalent to " end my race." In another, equally familiar, all 
the- figures are of this character: "I have fought the good 
fight," refers to an athletic^ not a warlike, contest. " I have 
finished my course" (I have ended my race), "I have kept the 



CHILDREN: THEIR TRAINING AND SCHOOLING. 115 

faith: henceforth there is hiid up for me a crown of right- 
eousness, which the Lord, the righteous judge, shall give me at 
that day " (2 Tim, iv. 7, 8), the last aUusion being to the wreaths 
of palm or laurel with Avhich the judges crowned the victor. 
To the Galatians he writes : " Ye did run well, who did hinder 




you ] " to the Philippians : " I press toward the mark for the 
prize ; " to the Corinthians : " I so run, not as uncertainly ; 
. . . so fight I, not as one that beateth the ah," — a few of 
many references to the training, regimen, and active participa- 
tion in the Greek games, or in the brutal encounters of men and 
beasts in gladiatorial arenas. 



HOME DISCIPLINE. 

AVhatever may have been the practice of domestic discipline in 
Jewish households, it is evident that their theories on this subject, 
as demonstrated in the Bible and the Apocrypha, did not err on 
the side of Aveak indulgence. Profound reverence for parental 
authority was strictly inculcated and enforced, both by the law 
and by family rule : the relation between parents and children 
was invested with peculiar sanctity, as typical of that existing 
between the Almighty Father and His chosen people. It is not 
an exaggeration to assert that in a Jewish community no crime 



116 home-lifp: in the bible. 

was regarded with more unqualified horror than any breach, 
whether in the letter or the spuit, of the " commandment with 
promise." For a child to be lacking in respect or loving attention 
to a parent, would have met with the severest condemnation; 
while crimes against parents, so common in our day, were happily 
almost unknown. 

It is only necessary to review a few of the enactments under 
the Mosaic dispensation, to read the Jewish mind on this vital 
subject : " Cursed be he that setteth light by his father or his 
mother" (Deut. xxvii. 16); "He that smiteth his father or his 
mother shall be surely put to death " (Exod. xxi. 15) ; " Every 
one that curseth his father or his mother shall be surely put to 
death : he hath cursed his father or his mother ; his blood shall 
be upon him " (Lev. xx. 9) ; and lastly, the terrible duty exacted 
from the parents of an incorrigible son, against whom there is 
not even an accusation of crime : " If a man have a stubborn 
and rebellious son, which will not obey the voice of his father, or 
the voice of his mother, and that, when they have chastened him, 
will not hearken unto them : then shall his father and his 
mother lay hold on him, and bring him out unto the elders of his 
city, and unto the gate of his place ; and they shall say unto the 
elders of his city, This our son is stubborn and rebellious, he will 
not obey our voice ; he is a glutton, and a drunkard. And all 
the men of his city shall stone him with stones, that he die : so 
shalt thou put evil away from among you ; and all Israel shall 
hear, and fear" (Deut. xxi. 18-21). It was concerning one of 
these laws that Jesus spoke, when .He accused the Jews of His 
time of having " made the commandment of God of none effect" 
by their tradition (Matt. xv. 6) ; in evident allusion to the inter- 
pretation of the law by the Mishnah, which reads: "He that 
curseth his father or his mother is not guilty, unless he curses 
them with express mention of the name of Jehovah " — otherwise 
he was declared innocent ! 

The Rabbinical ordinances carefully specified the duties of 
parents, and in a measure restricted their authority. A son was 
his own master from the time he could support himself; a 




THE PATRIAEOH. 



CHILDREN: THEIR TRAINING AND SCHOOLING. 119 

daughter continued under her father's control until her marriage, 
but after she was of age he could not bestow her hand without 
her own consent ; if a daughter had been given away before her 
legal " majority," twelve years and one day, she had afterwards 
the right of insisting upon a divorce. 

A father might chastise a young child, even then not to excess 
of severity ; but it was forbidden to beat a grown-up son, on pain 
of excommvmication. These examples show a decided ameliora- 
tion of the uncompromising rigor recommended to the head of 
the family in an earlier and more orthodox period, by that Wise 
King, who was not himself, perhaps, the best illustration of his 
own axiom : " Train up a child in the way he should go, and 
when he is old he will not depart from it." But here are some 
others, concerning this training : " Chasten thy son while there is 
hope, and let not thy soul spare for his crying " (Prov. xix. 18) ; 
" Foolishness is bound in the heart of a child ; but the rod of 
correction shall drive it far from him" (Prov. xxii. 15); "■ With- 
hold not correction from the child : for if thou beatest him with 
the rod, he shall not die. Thou shalt beat him with the rod, and 
shalt deliver his soul from hell" (Prov. xxiii. 13, 14). In like 
spirit writes the son of Sirach in the Apocrypha : " He that 
loveth his son causeth him oft to feel the rod. . . . He that 
chastiscth his son shall have joy m him." " Cocker (indulge) thy 
child, and he shall make thee afraid ; play with him, and he will 
bring thee to heaviness. Laugh not with him." ..." Give him 
no liberty in his youth." ..." Bow down his neck while he is 
young, and beat him on the sides while he is a child, lest he wax 
stubborn, and be disobedient unto thee, and so bring sorrow to 
thine licart " (Ecclus. xxx. 1, 2, 9-12). This of the sons; but 
he continues: " Hast thou daughters'? have a care of their body, 
and show not thyself cheerful toward them " (Ecclus. vii. 24:) ; 
yet this severe teacher suffers the tenderness of his heart to 
overflow unwittmgly toward the girls, in one little verse of true 
paternal feeling: "The father waketh for the daughter when 
no man knoweth ; and the care for her taketh away sleep : when 
she is young, lest she pass away the flower of her age ; and 
being married, lest she should be hated " (Ecclus. xlii. 9). 



120 



HOME-LIFE TN THE BIBLE. 



upon the parental discipline under which he himself was reared. 
Writing to Timothy concerning the officers 
of the infant Church, St. Paul says of the 
bishop : he must be " one that ruleth well 
his own house, having his children in sub- 
jection with all gravity. (For if a man 
know not how to rule his own house, how 
shall he take care of the church of God V ) 
(1 Tim. iii. 4, 5.) And again : '' Let the 
deacons be the husbands of one wife, rul- 
ing their children and their own houses 
well " (1 Tim. iii. 12) ; and finally he sums 
up the Christian doctrine of family rela- 
tionship and its mutual duties in these 
comprehensive words : " Children, obey 
your parents in the Lord : for this is right. 
Honor thy father and mother ; which is 
the first commandment with promise ; that 
it may be well with thee, and thou mayest 
live long on the earth. And, ye fathers, 
provoke not your children to wrath : but 
bring them up in the nurture and admo- 
nition of the Lord " (Eph. vi. 1-4). 

As illustrations of the fulfilment of 
this beautiful law of corresponding autho- 
rity and submission, ordained and blessed 
of God, we shall do well to remember 
Isaac and Joseph of the Old Testament, 
especially as prototypes of that Holy Child 
of the New Dispensation, who, born of 
Mary and reared by the carpenter, "went 
down with them, and came to Nazareth, 
and was subject unto them. . . . And Jesus increased in wis- 
dom and stature, and in favor with God and man" (Luke ii. 51, 
52). 




CHILDREN: THEIR TRAINING AND SCHOOLING. 121 

In treating of the education of Jewish children, it must be 
borne in mind, that, in the scholastic system of the chosen people, 
religious discipline held the first place, — all merely intellectual 
development being subordinated to the love of God, and the 
knowledge of His holy Law. Philo wrote of the Jews of his 
day, that they " were from their swaddling-clothes, even before 
being taught either the sacred laws or the unwritten customs, 
trained by their parents, teachers, and instructors to recognize 
God as Father and as the Maker of the world ; " and that, " hav- 
ing been taught the knowledge (of the laws) from earliest youth, 
they bore in their souls the image of the commandments." 

Josephus adds his testimony to the same effect, that " from 
their earliest consciousness " they had " learned the laws so as to 
have them, as it were, engraven upon the soul." And these 
authorities, though of comparatively modern date, are but the 
repetition of what may be gathered throughout the pages of 
Scripture. — the Book of Proverbs being exceptionally rich in 
details affording an insight into family life, with special reference 
to " training up a child in the way he should go " (Prov. xxii. 6). 

On no subject is the law more emphatic than in its commands 
to parents to teach the '• statutes, judgments, and commandments 
of the Lord," to their children, thus : " These words, which I 
command thee this day, shall be in thine heart : and thou shalt 
teach them diligently unto thy children, and shalt talk of them 
when thou sittest in thine house, and when thou walkest by the 
way, and when thou liest down, and when thou risest up " (Deut. 
vi. 6, 7) ; and again in the thirty-first chapter : •■ Gather the 
people together, men and women and children, and thy stranger 
that is within thy gates, that they may hear, and that they may 
learn, and fear the Lord your God, and observe to do all the 
words of this law: and that their children, which have not 
known any thing, may hear, and learn to fear the Lord your 
God." 

Six or seven was the age at which a Jewish parent was 
required to enter his son upon a course of study ; but even before 
the child could speak, his religious education had begun in his 



122 



HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 



nurse's arms when, carried into or out of any " clean " apartment 
in the house, he would be taught to touch the revered " Mesu- 
sah," and kiss the tiny finger that had approached the sacred 
Name exposed for adoration. Then with its first lispings the baby 
was fed with the " sincere milk of the Word," — simple verses of 




bLFFEli LIliLt CHILDREN TO oOME hh i.O M.E 



Scripture, little morsels of prayer, and especially that " birthday 
text" which began or ended with the same letters as its own 
name, and which it was a later custom to teach a child always to 
repeat with its daily prayer. Thus in the apostolic days had 
Lois the grandmother, and Eunice the mother, of the pious 



CHILDREN: THEIR TRAINING AND SCHOOLING. 125 

Timotliy, taught him so faithfully that St. Paul could say with 
confidence to his " own son in the faith : " " Continue thou in the 
things which thou hast learned arid hast been assured of, know- 
ing of whom thou hast learned them. And that from a child " 
(baby) " thou hast known the holy scriptures, which are able to 
make thee "wise unto salvation through faith which is in Christ 
Jesus" (2 Tim. iii. U, 15). 

The Talmud records the interesting fact, that before the coming 
of Christ, and probably during His time, there were small parch- 
ment rolls prepared specially for the use of children, containing 
certain portions of the Law, " the history of the Creation to the 
Flood, and the first eight chapters of the book of Leviticus." 
An ancient Rabbi lays down the following formula for the educa- 
tion of sons : " At five years of age, reading of the Bible (of 
course in the original Hebrew) ; at ten years, learning the 
Mishnah ; at thirteen years, bound to the commandments ; at 
fifteen years, the study of the Talmud ; at eighteen, marriage," 
— Avhich was necessarily an abrupt and final interruption to the 
scholastic course. Wiser sayings on this important topic warn 
the parent against setting a child to " regular study before it is 
six years old." At this age the Jewish boy of the better class 
passed from the exclusive care of his mother and his nurse to 
that of some faithful servant of the household, usually the 
steward or ruler of the house, who enjoyed to the fullest extent 
his master's respect and confidence. His duty was not to impart 
instruction, but to guard the young heir from whatever might 
corrupt him in mind or body, to exercise over him an unceasing 
moral restraint, to attend him to and from school, the bath, sight- 
seeing, or whatever else should take him out of doors. Such a 
personal guardian is referred to by St. Paul, when he wrote to 
the Galatians : " The law was our schoolmaster to bring us unto 
Christ" (iii. 24). 

The Jewish lad became "of age" morally, so to speak, when 
he was thirteen years old and one day : he was then made a 
" son of the covenant," responsible before God for his own 
actions. He put on the Talith, or " fringed garment," and the 



126 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

phylacteries ; and thrice a day, if possible, he was obliged to 
attend the religious exercises of the synagogue, undertaking the 
strict fulfilment of the law. 

Daughters remained in charge of the mother and the nurse 
until marriage : there was very slight provision made for the 
education of girls, since, certainly as late as the days of Rabbini- 
cal control, those wise doctors declared their opposition to any 
more than a rudimentary course of study for the frailer sex. For 
this opposition they gave several reasons, so indisputably excel- 
lent that it seems somewhat supererogatory that they should 
dismiss the Avhole subject with the dogmatical assertion : " Women 
are of a light mind ! " Yet, for all that, there were learned women 
in that day, learned even from the Rabbinical standpoint ; but 
how the reverend teachers disposed of such perverse and strong- 
minded facts, has not been disclosed for our edification. 

Before the Captivity, children were taught by their parents 
and the Levites, and later by the Kabbis, to read and write, and 
to commit the law to memory ; after the Captivity, when syna- 
gogues were built in every considerable town, there were element- 
ary schools attached to each, where young children were 
exercised by their appointed teachers in learning the Hebrew 
characters, preparatory to the first lessons in reading the Bible, 
beginning always with Leviticus, the book of the law. The 
alphabet was taught by drawing the letters on a board until the 
child became familiar with them, and able to name each at sight. 
He was then required to decipher them one by one in perfect 
manuscript, to combine them, and to read them aloud — special 
care being taken to instruct the pupil in his choice of language 
and pronunciation. The training' of the memory was considered 
of the highest importance in early education, and mnemonic rules 
were devised to that end. 

The rules and regulations for these infant-schools were of the 
most careful and salutary character : as the teacher was to 
promote the moral welfare of his pupils, still more than the 
intellectual, he must keep them strictly from every vicious 
association ; he must suppress in them all desue for revenge, all 



CHILDREN: THEIR TRAINING AND SCHOOLING. 127 

ill-feeling one toward another. He must by no means promise a 
child any thmg that he did not mtend to perform, lest the child 
should become accustomed to the idea of falsehood ; he must not 
lose patience with a pupil, however slow and stupid ; if, after all 




kindness had failed, the teacher must resort to punishment, he 
might administer correction only with a strap, and that with 
moderation. Lest he should show favor to the children of rich 
parents, the teacher was salaried by the congregation, and all 
expenses of the school were defrayed by charitable contributions. 



128 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

The hours of study were regulated according to the age of the 
pupil, and the season of the year ; only four hours were per- 
mitted for instruction during July and August ; nor was a 
teacher allowed to chastise his pupils during these months ! 
Lastly, he must be a married man, and bring to his delicate duties 
the sympathies of a paternal heart. 

It Avas the custom in Oriental schools for the master to sit on a 
high chair : his elder pupils sat on a low bench, while the 
youngest sat on the floor, — the scholars were literally "at the 
feet " of their teacher. So St. Paul said of himself that he " was 
brought up in this city " (Jerusalem), " at the feet of Gamaliel " 
(Acts xxii. 3) ; so the pious Mary, who had " chosen that good 
part," "sat at Jesus' feet, and heard his word" (Luke x. 39); 
and so, when the Great Teacher was about to teach the assembled 
people in the synagogue at Nazareth, " he closed the book, and 
he gave it again to the minister, and sat down " (Luke iv. 20). 
In like manner it was " when he was set," that " his disciples 
came unto him, and he opened his mouth, and taught them " in 
the wonderful Sermon on the Mount (Matt. v. 1, 2). In the 
Temple " all the people came unto him, and he sat down and 
taught them" (John viii. 2) ; and in that hour of the " power of 
darkness," He testified to them that had " come out as against a 
thief, with swords and staves ;" "I sat daily with you teaching in 
the temple " (Matt. xxvi. 55). 

This system of public school instruction prevailed at the time 
of our Lord's dwelling among us, and theoretically, at least, it 
would seem difficult to improve upon its liberal provisions and its 
great good sense. A most beautiful feature of this system was 
the kindness extended to the children of poor members of the 
congregation, as well as to orphans. In the Temple there Avas a 
separate receptacle provided to receive contributions, which, with 
much delicacy, were privately appropriated to these children, 
whose helplessness constituted an eloquent appeal to the hearts 
of the faithful. Indeed, Ave are told that orphans Avere a special 
charge to the Avhole congregation, — " not thrust into poorhouses; 
and the parochial authorities Avere even bound to proAdde a fixed 
doAvry for the girls." 




Y. 

THE HIGHER EBUOATIOK 

F a very different character were the important " Schools 
of the Prophets," mentioned very early in the history 
of the Jewish people. These theological seminaries, as 
we may terra them, are said to have been established in 
the service of religion by the holy Samuel, in a heroic 
effort to restore the purity of the priesthood. ' Through his 
influence, schools were opened in Ramah, Bethel, Jericho, Gilgal, 
and other cities : students, termed the " Sons of the Prophets," 
were selected among those young men of intellectual promise, as 
well as of unblemished character, who were desirous of further 
instruction in the law, and in the arts of music and poetry as 
connected with the liturgy of public devotion. When they had 
completed the prescribed course of study, they Avere installed in 
the sacred office of expounders of holy things to the people, — 
an office they were expected to magnify by an austere and 
strictly spiritual mode of life. Numerous allusions are made to 
these theological schools and to their students, the " Sons of the 
Prophets." We will indicate a few for the curious reader, as 
found in the Second Book of the Kings, ii. 3, 5, 7; iv. 1, 2, 38, 
43 ; vi. 1, 2 (1 Sam. x. 5, 10, xix. 19, 20). 

But, beside these special seats of learning, there were, at a 
later period, academies for lads of sixteen or eighteen, as well as 
class-rooms presided over by distinguished Rabbis, and even 
debates of the mighty Sanhedrim, to which maturer scholars were 
admitted; but entrance to the two last supposed a very advanced 
degree of acquirement. In these schools, though the profound 
study of the law, as expounded by the Rabbis, constituted a 



130 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

feature of the first importance ; yet certain concessions were made 
to the growing demand of the age for instruction in science and 
in the languages of their polite neighbors, the Greeks and 
Romans, with whom the people were brought into continual 
commercial contact. Up to this period all teaching of heathen 
science or literature had been absolutely prohibited. One learned 
Rabbi declared that " he who reads foreign books " forfeits his 
inheritance of eternal life ; Avhile another explained that the 
" foreign books " meant " those of Aristotle and his followers, the 
chronicles of Gentile kings, and the amatory verses of the poets." 
A third and still greater Rabbi disposed of the subject to the 
total discomfiture of any contemporaneous aspirant to profane 
attainments : he refers the young Israelite of " advanced 
thought " to the first Psalm : " Blessed is the man " Avhose 
" delight is in the law of the Lord ; and in His laAv doth he 
meditate day and night." "Find the hour," says the great Rabbi, 
" which is neitlier day nor night, and in tliat you may, without 
offence, study heathen writings." 

The earliest books, so frequently mentioned in the Sacred 
Volume, were written on linen or cotton cloth, on skins, or on 
leaves made of the stalk of the Egyptian water-reed called 
papyrus, from which paper was first made and derives its name. 
When written on cloth or parchment, the ancient book was 
made in the form of a sheet, attached at botli extremities to 
cylindrical rods, as our modern maps are mounted : the rods were 
then rolled up and met midway. To use tlie book, the reader 
unrolled the manuscript to the desired point, keeping only a 
small portion exposed for perusal, as required. Thin strips of 
parchment were fastened to each roll, indicating its contents, to 
save the student the trouble of unrolling the wrong book. Tlie 
subject matter of each roll Avas written in columns about four 
inches wide and some fifty lines long, corresponding to the pages 
of our books. Ancient rolls were often furnished with a case or 
cover, more or less ornamental according to the esteem in which 
tlie manuscript was held. 

Modern books in the East, whether of parchment or paper, are 



THE HIGHER EDUCATION. 



131 



made of separate sheets bound together at the back, and, if 
valuable, are kept in cases elaborately decorated in gold, pearls, 
and precious stones. A recent traveller took the pains to count 
over four hundred gems in the embroidered wrapper of a copy 
of the Koran. A convent in 
Jerusalem boasts of possessing 
" one hundred manuscript vol- 
umes on vellum ; " and in the 
monastic libraries on ]Mount 
Athos, there are " six rolls of 
parchment, each ten inches wide 
and ten feet long." But these 
are insignificant when compared 
with the ancient manuscript roll 
of the Pentateuch, preserved in 
the public library at Cambridge, 
Eng, : it is made of thirty-seven 
goat-skins dyed red, and meas- 
ures forty-eight feet in length 
by about twenty-two m breadth. 
As a part of it is lacking, it is 
computed that originally it must 
have been some ninety feet long. 
In his Second Epistle to Timo- 
thy, St. Paul du-ects him, when 
he comes, to bring " the books, 
but especially the parchments " 
(iv. 13). Such was the book 
that Jehudi read " in the ears 
of the king" (Jehoiakim). 
" And it came to pass that 

when Jehudi had read three or four leaves, he cut it with 
the penknife, and cast it into the fire that was on the hearth, 
until all the roll was consumed " ( Jer. xxxvi. 23). The " flying 
roll" that was shown to Zechariah in a vision was thirty feet 
long and twenty wide. Such was the book, a parchment roll, 




THE BOOK, OR ROLL IN rrS CASE. 



132 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

made use of by our Lord when He " went into the synagogue (at 
Nazareth) on the sabbath day, and stood up for to read. And 
there was delivered unto him the book of the prophet Esaias. 
And when he had opened the book, he found the place where it 
was written : The Spirit of the Lord is upon me, because he 
hath anointed me to preach the gospel to the poor ; he hath sent 
me to heal the broken-hearted, to preach deliverance to the 
captives, and recovering of sight to the blind, to set at liberty 
them that are bruised ; to preach the acceptable year of the 
Lord" (Luke iv. 16-19). To these rolls the prophet refers in 
the words: "The heavens shall be rolled together as a scroll" 
(Isa. xxxiv. 4). 

In Job we find allusion to three ancient methods of preserving 
records : "Oh that my words were now written ! Oh that they 
were printed in a book ! That they were graven with an iron 
pen and lead in the rock forever!" (xix. 23, 24.) Books were 
often engraved on tablets of stone, brick, lead, copper, or wood, 
or bark of trees. Lead tablets, especially, are of great antiquity . 
some of these thin sheets of lead in the British Museum date 
back to the fourth century before Christ ; they were excavated 
from the ruins of a heathen temple in Cnidus, an ancient Greek 
city of Asia Minor. It would be pleasant to say of the inscrip- 
tions on these tablets that have lived so long, that they record 
something noble, something that can never die ; but alas for poor 
human nature in the days of her extreme poverty ! tjiey contain 
only the names of the men and women of Cnidus, whom other 
men and women of Cnidus hated, and which were thus reported 
to the gods of the temple for their special malediction and ven- 
geance. 

A book of these tablets was purchased in Rome some two 
centuries ago, made entirely, even to the hinges and nails of the 
cover, of lead. It was about four inches long by three in width, 
and contained six "leaves." Its matter consisted of Egyptian 
gnostic figures, and inscriptions in Greek and Etruscan charac- 
ters. 

It is probable that Job refers, not to leaden tablets or leaves, 



THE HIGHER EDUCATION. 



133 



but to the ancient custom of cutting letters in stone, and then 
filling them with molten lead. Important truths or events were 
recorded in this manner : thus " Joshua built an altar unto the 
Lord God of Israel in Mount Ebal. . . . And he wrote there upon 




I 



Y H H -JVO A VIAOM OH. 



I > \nv/\i/iji >yNOA>Ar'ii 



^ VI VAYC l-l/VI KIA^QI HOK 



•&YV1 1^ 



VII KOI^nIIK^ >) > I 00AM 



3 V! AV-J /■"<Ay^WniH>vO_ 



(JX aXlCKS: EZEK. XXXVII. 16-20. 



the stones a copy of the law of Moses, which he wrote in the 
presence of the children of Israel " (Josh. viii. 30, 32) ; and 
scholars devoted to Oriental research find indications of incised 
letters, filled with lead or copper, in the Assyrian and other 



134 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

ancient monuments. Many of these stone records are invaluable, 
as confirming and even supplementing Biblical facts and history : 
the famous Moabite Stone, for instance, discovered in 1868, con- 
tains the Moabitish account of the battle between the three 
kings, — of Israel, Judah, and Edom, — and the king of Moab, 
Avho had rebelled against the king of Israel, refusing his cus- 
tomary tribute of " a hundred thousand lambs, and a hundred 
thousand rams, with the wool" (2 Kings iii.) 

The Rosetta Stone in the British Museum is a famous example 
of writing on stone : it contains a proclamation of the coronation 
of an Egyptian monarch, 196 B.C. Nineveh and Babylon have 
furnished many of these valuable " books " of stone, as well as 
bricks and tiles with inscriptions. 

The Greeks and Romans used the papyrus and parchment for 
manuscripts. The papyrus was put to a great variety of uses : 
for many ages it was the staple product of Egypt, and its manu- 
facture became a royal monopoly. An instructive writer on the 
" Trades of the Bible " says : " In the whole compass of inspired 
prophecy, there is nothing more surprising than the declaration 
made by Isaiah of the utter failure of the papyrus crop : ' The 
reeds and flags shall wither. The paper-reeds by the brooks, by 
the mouth of the brooks, and every thing sown by the brooks, 
shall wither, be driven away, and be no more'" (xix. 7), — a 
prophecy that has been literally fulfilled." It was among these 
tall water-plants, in the lair of the crocodile, that the infant 
Moses Avas hidden on the banks of the Nile. 

In reviewing these tedious processes of book-making, we may 
infer that the calling of a scribe was one of acknowledged im- 
portance : indeed, the enrolment of the " families of the scribes 
which dwelt at Jabez," in the genealogical tables contained in 
the opening chapters of the First Book of the Chronicles, 
would indicate that they occupied no mean position among their 
brethren. There were the secular, the military, and the sacred 
scribes, — distinctions scarcely necessary to be explained in 
detail here : the sacred scribe had the custody of the holy oracles, 
and the responsibility of their reproduction ; and the mere copyist 



THE HIGHER EDUCATION. 



137 



under his orders had a task requiring the utmost patience, skill, 

and reverence for his work. The Rabbinical books prescribed 

stringent rules for the writing of the sacred rolls of the Law. 

The material must not be papyrus, nor ordinary parchment, but 

the finest vellum made of the 

inner side of the sheepskin. 

The letters must be of that 

form — the '• square Hebrew" 

— which, by Jewish tradition, 

was identical with that used 

on Mount Sinai in the tables 

of the law. They must be 

written with black ink, not 

with gold or colors ; minute 

directions av e r e given for 

breaking off the lines, and 

especially for writing the 

Divine Name : the pen which 

had recorded the name 

Jehovah was consecrated 

solely to that sacred purpose. 

If an error was detected in 

the manuscript, the whole skin had to be destroyed, as no 

erasure or correction was permitted. 

In those dark days for Israel, during the Syrian persecutions 
which finally roused the Maccabees to desperate defence of their 
race, it was common for private families to possess at least por- 
tions of the Word of God in the form we have described. It is 
on record that a feature of those persecutions Avas the monthly 
search for the Scriptures in the homes of the Jewish people ; and, 
in the Avords of the historian : " 'Whew they had rent in pieces 
the books of the Law Avhich they found, they burnt them Avith 
fii-e ; and Avhosoever Avas found Avith any book of the Testament, 
or if any consented to the LaAv, the king's commandment Avas 
that they should put him to death" (1 Mace. i. 56, 57). 

After the triumph of the Maccabees, there Avas a period of great 




SAMARITAN COPY OF THE LAAV 



1-38 HOME-LIP^E IN THE BIBLE. 

religious revival, and it may be supposed that scribes were multi- 
plied to repair the losses sustained in the destruction of the pre- 
cious manuscripts ; and that in the time of Christ few pious 
IlebreAv homes — such as that of Elisabeth, or Anna, or Dorcas, 
Lydia, Phoebe, Priscilla, or the mother of Zebedee's children, or 
St. John's " elect lady," or Lois or Eunice, or Mary the mother of 
Mark, or, lastly, that greater Mary whom all generations call 
Blessed — were without some portion of the written Word from 
which to teach their children the way of eternal life. 

In these days the scribe added to his laborious art of transcrib- 



MECLEVAL BIBLES. 



ing, the perilous responsibility of commenting upon and expound- 
ing the Law ; and, finally, his devotion to the letter seems to have 
led to the perversions that characterized that time, when our 
Lord was constrained to say to His disciples, " in the audience of 
all the people : " " Beware of the scribes, which desire to walk 
in long robes, and love greetings in the markets, and the highest 
seats in the synagogues, and the chief rooms at feasts ; which 
devour widows' houses, and for a show make long prayers : the 
same shall receive greater damnation" (Luke xx. 46, 47). Quite 
distinct from these pretentious scribes, who were also identified 
with certain le^al functions, was the writer who earned his mod- 



THE HIGHER EDUCATION. 139 

est living by conducting correspondence, or keeping accounts, for 
the large class of the community who had no knowledge of 
Avriting. This art w^as, especially in early times, a rare accom- 
plishment among the Hebrews and other Orientals ; letter-Avriting 
was, for the most part, a polite interchange of formal expressions 
of courtesy according to the prevailing etiquette, which could be 
delegated to a public scribe without sensitive reluctance. 

Ancient letters were probably written on fine parchment, 
specially prepared for the purpose, on palm-leaves, or on papyrus. 
There were also writing-tablets in common use among the Greeks 
and Komans, as well as the Hebrews ; small " leaves " some- 
times made of ivory, but generally of wood, — citron, beech, or fir. 
One side was covered with a thin coating of wax, in which the 
letters Avere formed by the stylus^ — a sort of pen made of gold, 
silver, or cheaper metals, or even of bone. One end of the 
stylus Avas pointed for Avriting ; the other Avas broad and flat for 
erasions, and for smoothing the wax, so that it could be used 
again. Five or six of these tablet leaves might be fastened 
together at the back by wires ; and, when used for letter-Avriting, 
all could be tied together Avith a strong cord, the ends of which 
were sealed Avith the Avriter's signet. Such was the " writing- 
table," or tablet, that Zacharias called for at the circumcision and 
naming of his son, St. John the Baptist : the company " made 
signs to his father, hoAV he Avould have him called. And he asked 
for a Avri ting-table, and Avrote, saying. His name is John " (Luke 
i. 62, 63). There Avere several varieties of pens, to correspond 
with the materials upon Avhich the Avriting Avas to be inscribed. 
In very early times it Avas common to paint the letters or hiero- 
glyphic characters Avith a hair pencil finely pointed : afterAvard, 
the calamus, or reed pen, Avas introduced, and still later the 
improvement of splitting the point of the reed, as we prepare 
goose-quills, Avith a knife made for that purpose ; this penknife 
is mentioned in Jer. xxxvi. 23. Job speaks of " an iron pen ; " 
Jeremiah declares that " the sin of Judah is Avritten with a pen 
of iron, and Avith the point of a diamond" (xvii. 1). Inks of 
various sorts Avcre manufactured, and for brilliancy and durability 



140 



HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 



have certainly never been equalled by modern compositions. The 
commonest preparation was made of pulverized charcoal, or ivory 
or lamp black, mixed with gum and water : the Greeks used an 
ink similar to our Indian ink, rubbing it from a solid block and 
mixing it with water. The Romans made ink of soot with pitch, 

and by boiling and straining 
the dregs of wine : they also 
used a black secretion of the 
cuttle-fish, hence its name 
sepia. The Romans were 
also skilled in the manufac- 
ture of colored inks, and of 
invisible or sympathetic inks 
for secret correspondence : a 
very costly red ink was made 
for the imperial signature ; 
but, if the emperor was a 
minor, his regent signed for 
him in green ink. The 
Egyptians were also fond of 
red ink, and that found on their papyrus writings of ancient date 
is as fresh as if Avritten recently. Josephus speaks of writing in 
gold letters, probably in the style of later illuminated manu- 
scripts. The ink so frequently mentioned in the New Testa- 
ment was almost certainly black, as indicated by its name in 
that connection. 

The writer's inkhorn is spoken of but once in the Bible, though 
it is one of the most familiar articles in use in the East, even to 
this day : in vision the prophet Ezekiel saw " six men ; " and " one 
man among them was clothed with linen, with a writer's inkhorn 
by his side " (ix. 2). This was a convenient case for writing- 
materials, consisting of a receptacle for pens and paper, with a 
small box, having a hinged lid, for the ink at one end. The 
whole case is about ten inches in length, usually made of brass, 
copper, or silver, and often exhibiting exquisite workmanship: 




EGYPTIAN WRITING IMPLEMENTS. 



THE HIGHER EDUCATION. 



141 



delicate arabesque designs. It is still customary in the East for 
public letter-writers to carry these 
inkhorns in thek girdles, and at the 
street-corners to write impassioned 
confessions for lovers, or bitter de- 
nunciations for mortal enemies, with 
equal placidity and skill. " It came 
to pass in the morning, that David 
wrote a letter to Joab, and sent it 
by the hand of Uriah. And he 
wrote in the letter, saying, Set ye 
Uriah in the forefront of the hottest 
battle, and retire ye from him, that 
he may be smitten, and die " (2 Sam. 
xi. l-i, 15). This is the fh-st letter 
recorded in the Bible. We may 
safely conclude that it was penned 
by the king's own hand, not by one 
of the four scribes of his royal 
household. Short as it is, few 
readers need to be reminded of the 
terrible part it bore in bringing to a 
tragic crisis the shameful story that, 
through the Divine mercy, found a 
blessed sequel in the Fifty-first 
Psalm. 

Another royal personage, the in- 
famous Jezebel, accomplished a 
murderous purpose, in the interest 
of her husband King Ahab, by 
means of letters : " She wrote let- 
ters in Ahab's name, and sealed 
them with his seal, and sent the 
letters unto the elders and to the 

nobles" (1 Kings xxi. 8). The seventh chapter of the Book of 
Ezra contains " the copy of the letter that the king Artaxerxes 




142 HOM?>LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

gave unto Ezra the priest, ... a scribe of the law of the 
God of heaven." In the beautiful story of the cleansing of 
Naaman the leper, we read that the king of Syria sent a letter 
to the king of Israel (2 Kings v. 5). 

These primitive letters were in the form of rolls, closed at the 
ends with clay or Avax, and then sealed. In writing to persons of 
distinction, it was the custom in Persia, as well as other Oriental 
lands, to enclose the scroll in a very elegant bag or purse: the 
opening of the bag was tied, and covered vrith clay or wax, which 
then received the impression of the writer's seal. This elaborate 
form of letter was a polite recognition of the respect due to the 
rank or worth of the person addressed : an open letter, on the 
contrary, was an intentional expression of contempt, or simply 
the usual manner of indicating that it was sent to an inferior. 
Such was evidently the etiquette as to correspondence prevailing 
in Persia in the days of the devout Nehemiah ; for he lays stress 
upon the fact that Sanballat (who wished to intimidate and insult 
him) sent " his servant unto me in like manner the fifth time with 
an open letter in his hand " (Neh. vi. 5). It was so unusual in 
the East for persons to write their own letters, that the seal 
became of more importance than the signature, and was often 
used in its stead. Seals w^ere often fastened upon rings, and worn 
on the finger. The gift of such a ring was a transfer of authority : 
thus " Pharaoh took ofi" his ring from his hand, and put it upon 
Joseph's hand" (Gen. xli. 42); and Ahasuerus invested Haman 
with royal power in the same way, and again gave it to Mordecai 
(Esth. iii. 10-12). Many specimens of these seals and signet- 
rings are preserved in public and private collections : they present 
a great variety of forms, and are made of gold, silver, brass, 
precious stones, or even pottery ; some were perforated, to be 
hung on a chain about the neck ; others were cylindrical and in 
a metal frame, so as to revolve as the impression was taken : 
Chaldeea and Assyria have furnished beautiful specimens of this 
sort of seal. The art of engraving stone seals is very ancient : 
it is first mentioned in connection with the precious stones of 
the high -priest's ceremonial vestments : " With the work of an 



THE HIGHER EDUCATION. Uo 

engraver in stone, like the engravings of a signet, shalt thou 
engrave the two stones with the names of the children of Israel" 
(Exod. xxviii. 11). The devices preferred for seals were figures 
and characters of symholical significance : a favorite design for 
the convex surface of an Egyptian seal was the sacred scarabaeus, 
or beetle. Clay was used in preference to wax ; because the heat 
of the Oriental climate hardened the clay, while it would melt 
the wax. Job says of the earth : '^ It is turned as clay to the 
seal" (xxxviii. 14). It must be remembered that seals were 
used for countless other purposes than the closing or signing of 
letters : in Egypt, Babylonia, and Assyria, bricks were stamped 
with a seal ; wine-jars and mummy-pits in Egypt were covered 




SEALS AND SiaNETS. 

and sealed with clay ; the doors of granaries or treasure-rooms 
throughout the East are to this day thus sealed, so that they 
cannot be opened without fii'st breaking the seal. Even tombs 
are secured in this manner, as is written of the grave of Jesus : 
" They went and made the sepulchre sure, sealing the stone " 
(Matt, xxvii. 66). So was the pit of lions fastened, into which 
Daniel was cast : "A stone was brought, and laid upon the mouth 
of the den ; and the king sealed it with his own signet, and with 
the signet of his lords " (vi. 1 7). Many precautions were neces- 
sary to maintain the inviolability of signatures and seals ; since. 
in later times especially, their imitation and fraudulent use was 
a crymg public evil. Josephus dwells upon this fact ; and almost 
every epistle of St. Paul, written by amanuenses, contains at its 
close a special assurance from the apostle of its genuineness : 
"The salutation of Paul with mine own hand, which is the token 
in every epistle : so I write " (2 Thess. iii. 17) ; " The salutation 
by the hand of me Paul" (Col. iv. 18); "Ye see how large a 
letter I have written unto you with mine own hand " (Gal. vi. 1 1). 



YI. 



EMPLOYMENTS AND SERVANTS. 









STRIKING feature in the education of Jewish chil- 
dren — in strong contrast to the system prevailing 
among the Gentiles — was the enactment that com- 
pelled the Hebrew parent, however wealthy or distin- 
guished, to teach his son a trade. While the luxurious 
and corrupt Greeks and Romans contenmed aU manual or 
mechanical labor as mean and vulgar, the Aviser Jewish people 
delighted to honor it with their lips, and even to engage in it 
witli somewhat ostentatious humility. It was a Rabbinical prin- 
ciple, that " whoever does not teach his son a trade is as if he 
brought him up to be a robber ; " and a multiplicity of laudatory 



EMPLOYMENTS AND SEKVANT8. 145 

proverbs from high sources demonstrate the popular esteem in 
which honest labor was held. Yet certain trades, it must be 
confessed, Avere regarded with virulent prejudice, by reason of 
the uncleanliness of their surroundings, — such as those of tan- 
ners, dyers, and miners ; while the Mishnah (one of the Kabbini- 
cal books) warned a man not to instruct his son in a trade which 
must necessarily bring him into contact Avith women. It is evi- 
dent that this caution was not too strictly observed, or there would 
have been a notable deficiency of jewellers, perfumers, weavers, 
manufacturers of various household appointments, and other 
tradesmen delegated more especially to the ministration of the 
fair sex. After a period in Jewish social history in which the 
mechanical arts had been held in contempt, as incompatible with 
the pursuit of learning, the Rabbis carried their appreciation of 
the dignity of labor to an opposite extreme. It became the 
fashion for these exalted scholars, profound in the mysteries of 
the law, to engage personally in severe manual toil, so that the 
celebrated names of that epoch handed down to us are coupled 
Avith the trades of smiths, potters, shoemakers, tailors, sandal- 
makers, — in short, throughout the entire list of common crafts : 
an extreme case is recorded of a stone-cutter, who was summoned 
from his shop to be invested with the office of high-priest. 

In this connection, it is edifying to consider how the great 
Apostle Paul pursued his occupation as a tentmaker while he was 
burdened with " the care of all the churches ; " and while in 
Corinth, at the house of Aquila and Priscilla, because he " was 
of the same craft, he abode with them and wrought : for by their 
occupation they were tentmakers " (Acts xviii. 3). That he 
was not alone in thus combining spmtual with secular pursuits, 
St. Paul declares in Avriting to the Corinthians of the other apos- 
tles as well: "We have no certain dwelling-place; and labor, 
working with our own hands" (1 Cor. iv. 11, 12). 

Nor must we fail to dwell upon the fact, so difficult to realize, 
that the " Only Begotten of the Father, full of grace and truth," 
passed years of patient waiting in daily toil at the carpenter's 
bench in the little shop at Nazareth, where, Avith his reputed 



146 



HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 




father, he labored for the modest support of his family. And yet 
when only twelve years of age he had said to his mother : " Wist 
ye not that I must be about my Father's business?" (Luke ii. 49.) 
The daughters of the family were instructed in the household 
duties incumbent upon the women of their times. Of the ideal 

wife and mother of Israel, as 
depicted in the Book of Prov- 
erbs, it is said, "She seeketh 
wool and flax, and worketh 
willingly with her hands. . . . 
She layeth her hands to the 
spindle, and her hands hold 
the distaff"" (Prov. xxxi. 13, 
19) ; and at the building of 
the tabernacle it is recorded 
that " all the women that 
were wise-hearted did spin 
with their hands, and brought 
that which they had spun, 
both of blue, and of purple, and of scarlet, and of fine linen. 
And all the women whose heart stirred them up in wisdom 
spun goats' hair" (Exod. xxxv. 25, 26). It is therefore rea- 
sonable to conclude that spinning wool for winter garments, 
and flax for the fine linen so highly prized, constituted per- 
haps the most important domestic industry. The task of 
preparing the yarn for weaving belonged to the young girls of 
the family, hence our word spinster for an unmarried woman ; 
while the more delicate operation of weaving the cloth was the 
mother's work, and is expressed in her title wife. The ancient 
sculptures represent Egyptian women busy with the distaff and 
at the loom. From the choice flax of Egypt the finest linen was 
produced, especially a transparent fabric of exquisite texture, 
represented on mural pictures as draping but not concealing the 
outlines of the figure. The prophet, in his " burden of Egypt," 
alludes to them " that work in fine flax, and them that weave 
net-works " (Isa. xix. 9). Spinning and weaving ma)' have been 



A CAllPENTKR'S SHOP IK MODERN 
NAZARETH. 



EMPLOYMENTS AND SERVANTS. 147 

the employments of which the righteous Tobit speaks in his 
quaint autobiography : " My wife Anna did take women's works 
to do ; and when she had sent them home to the owners, they 
paid her wages, and gave her also besides a kid" (Tob. ii. 11, 12). 
AYe observe, from the examples presented in the first books of 
the Bible, that it was customary for women of the highest rank to 
engage personally in what are noAV, by a perverted social sense, 
considered the menial offices of the household, — cooking, serv- 
ing, draAving water ; and in the rural districts taking part in the 
farm-labor and the tending of flocks. Sarah, the wife of Abra- 
ham, ^receiving her title, "the Princess," from the Almighty, — 
" makes cakes upon the hearth," and prepares the savory meat 
for her husband's guests (Gen. xviii. 6) ; and so the wife of the 
Bedouin chief of to-day dispenses with her own hands the sacred 
rites of family ministration and hospitality. To the younger 
women pertained the task of bringing Avater from the Avell or 
public fountain for the use of the family, — a duty they were not 
averse to, since it brought them in contact with their young- 
companions to interchange the social gossip of the hour. In his 
prayer to God for the success of his mission, the servant of Abra- 
ham said : " Behold, I stand here by the well of water ; and the 
daughters of the men of the city come out to draAV water : . . . 
and it came to pass, before he had done speaking, that, behold, 
Eebekah came out . . . with her pitcher upon her shoulder" 
(Gen. xxiv. 13, 15) ; and so when Saul and his servant Avent to 
seek the prophet Samuel, " as they Avent up the hill to the city, 
they found young maidens going out to draAv Avater" (1 Sam. ix. 
11). This custom still prevails in many parts of the East: the 
guis carry the pitchers Avith broad bottoms on their heads, pro- 
tected by a small cushion ; those that are pointed [ampliora) are 
carried on the shoulder, also Avitli a cushion. It is permissible 
noAV for a passing stranger to ask a drink of these fair Avater- 
carriers, even as it Avas in the far-aAvay time Avhen Eliezer begged 
that faA-or of the beautiful Rebekah (Gen. xxiv. 45) ; and later, 
AA'hen at Jacob's Avell " there cometh a Avoman of Samaria to di-aAv 
water : Jesus saith unto her, GIa'c me to drink " (John iv. 7). 



148 



HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 



The washing of the family Hnen in small towns and villages 
was, and is still, done at the public fountain, — a rude structure 

being erected for the accom- 
modation of the officiating 
matrons. 

The gathering of fuel in 
the rural districts has been 
from a remote period the 
peculiar duty of Eastern 
women and children, and is 
another household custom 
still preserved in Palestine. 
Maidens are seen at the 
barley-harvest of Boaz, who 
said to E,uth : " Go not to 
glean in another field, neither 
go from hence, but abide 
here fast by my maidens : let 
thine eyes be on the field 
that they do reap, and go 
thou after them" (Ruth ii. 
8, 9). They tended their 
fathers' flocks, as in the ex- 
ample of Rachel, who came 
to the well of Haran " with 
her father's sheep, for she 
kept them " (Gen. xxix. 9) ; 
and of Jethro's seven daugh- 
ters in the land of Midian, 
who " came and drew water, 
and filled the troughs to 
water their father's flock" 
(Exod. ii. 16). They also 
took part in the gathering of the vintage, and of the harvests of 
grains and fruits. 

Fine embroidery and needlework form so prominent an industry 




'''ifii, "f ta'r < 



EMPLOYMENTS AND SERVANTS. 149 

among modern Oriental women, that it is not unreasonable to 
conclude that it was a feminine accomplishment at a very early 
period. It would be pleasant to know that the " embroidery " 
and " cunning work," mentioned so frequently in the Book of 
Exodus in connection with the adornment of the tabernacle and 
the priests' garments, was wrought by the nimble fingers of those 
"women that were wise-hearted" to spin fine linen and goats' 
hair for the house of the Lord ; and may it not be surmised from 
the proclamation of Moses throughout the camp of zealous con- 
tributors? — "Let neither man nor woman make any more work 
for the offering of the sanctuary " (Exod. xxxvi. 6). 

Under the new dispensation, the apostles left no room for 
" doubtful disputations " as to the " sphere " of woman and her 
Avork, whether in the church or in the family. St. Paul, instruct- 
ing Timothy as to the essential qualifications for membership in a 
certain pious sodality of women, describes the elderly Christian 
Avidow, " she that is a widow indeed : " " Well reported of for 
good works ; if she have brought up children, if she have lodged 
strangers, if she have washed the saints' feet, if she have relieved 
the afflicted, if she have diligently followed every good work." 
" But," he contmues, " the younger widows refuse. ... I will 
therefore that the younger women marry, bear children, guide 
the house, give none occasion to the adversary to speak reproach- 
fully" (1 Tim. V. 5, 10, 11, 14). Again in his Epistle to 
Titus the apostle urges him to exhort " the aged women likewise, 
that they be in behavior as becometh holiness, not false accusers, 
not given to much wine, teachers of good things; that they may 
teach the young Avomen to be sober, to love their husbands, to 
love their children, to be discreet, chaste, keepers at home, good, 
obedient to their OAvn husbands, that the Avord of God be not 
blasphemed " (ii. 3 - 5). Both St. Paul and St. Peter covet for 
all " AA^omen professing godliness," the adornment of " good 
Avorks" (1 Tim. ii. 10); not that " of Avearing of gold or of put- 
ting on of apparel," but " the ornament of a meek and quiet 
spkit, Avhich is in the sight of God of great price" (1 Pet. iii. 4). 

" AMiosoever shall do the Avill of my Father Avhich is in 




150 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

heaven, the same is my brother, and sister, and mother," is the 
Saviour's inspiring assurance to the weakest of that sex whose 
lives, for the most part, are spent in a weary round of daily tasks. 
To the fretting housewife, " cumbered about much serving," He 
administers the gentle rebuke : " Martha, Martha, thou art care- 
ful and troubled about many things : but one thing is needful ; 
and Mary hath chosen that good part, which shall not be taken 
away from her" (Luke x. 41, 42); while His commendation of 
her who came to Him " in Bethany, in the house of Simon the 
leper," — "She hath done what she could" (Mark xiv. 8), — is the 
supreme tribute attainable by the most exalted among women, 
and yet equally within the reach of the lowliest drudge. 



iLxWERY is found in Israel in the earliest records of the 
nation ; but, like polygamy, it Avas, in their practice, a sys- 
tem eminently humane and protective. The " bondmen " 
and " bondmaids," so often indicated in the law and narrative of 
the Old Testament, were, for the most part, captives taken in war 
from the heathen nations whom the Hebrews were commanded to 
drive out before them, as they took possession of the promised land. 
But in certain circumstances a Jew might purchase one of his own 
people : as where a man too poor to pay a debt sold himself to 
his creditor, in which case the law mercifully provided: "If thy 
brother that dwelleth by thee be Avaxen poor, and be sold unto 
thee ; thou shalt not compel him to serve as a bondservant : but 
as a hired servant, and as a sojourner, he shall be with thee, and 
shall serve thee unto the year of jubilee : and then shall he 
depart from thee, both he and his children with him, and shall 
return unto his own family, and unto the possession of his fathers 
shall he return " (Lev. xxv. 39-41); or as when a man, having 
stolen something he could not restore or replace, was " sold for 
his theft." Parents might sell their daughter as a maidservant, 
but it was understood that she was to be her master's concubine : 
if, however, she became his son's wife, the law compelled her 
master to " deal with her after the manner of daughters " (Exod. 
xxi. 9). 




THE SISTEUS OF liETHANY. 



EMPLOYMENTS AND SERVANTS. 153 

This state of servitude could last by law ouly six years ; but, 
where it was entered into for debt, it might be still shorter, that 
is, cancelled when payment was made. Otherwise the Hebrew 
bondman served six years ; and, it was written, " in the seventh 
he shall go out free for nothing." Frequently, however, the 
master had given one of his own bondmaids to his servant to 
wife, in w^hich case he must " go out by himself," since wife and 
children belonged to the master ; for this emergency the law also 
provided : "If the servant shall plainly say, I love my master, my 
wife, and my children ; I will not go out free : then his master 




KAMhkN LANDbCxVPE. 



shall bring him unto the judges ; he shall also bring him to the 
door, or unto the door-post ; and his master shall bore his ear 
through with an awl; and he shall serve him forever" (Exod. xxi. 
5, 6). Even when discharged free in the seventh year, the mas- 
ter was commanded not to " let him go away empty . " " Thou 
shalt furnish him liberally out of thy flock, and out of thy floor, 
and out of thy winepress : of that wherewith the Lord thy God 
hath blessed thee thou shalt give unto him " (Dent. xv. 14). A 
Hebrew bondmaid might not go free in the seventh year ; but, if 
not married to her master or his son, she must be returned to her 
father, or g^iven to another Hebrew master. 



154 



HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 



A peculiar feature of Oriental slavery was the possibility of 
promotion it offered to a faithful, intelligent servant, devoted to the 
interests of his owner. This is exempli- 
fied in the remarkable history of Joseph, 
where, from a slave in a dungeon, he rose 
to be " even as Pharaoh " the king ; and in 
the elevation of Abraham's steward, Elie- 
zer of Damascus, to be the " eldest serv- 
ant of his house, that ruled over all that 
he had," and to whom was intrusted the 
delicate mission of procuring a bride for 
the patriarch's son Isaac. It was by no 
means impossible for the ambitious slave 
to become the son-in-law of his master, 
even though a heathen and a " stranger." 
An instance of this promotion is recorded 
in 1 Chron. ii. 34, 35 : " Sheshan had 
no sons, but daughters. And Sheshan 
had a servant, an Egyptian, whose name 
was Jarha. And Sheshan gave his 
daughter to Jarha, his servant, to wife." 

The honorable office of steward is 
very ancient, and pertained necessarily to 
a wealthy establishment. Its duties com- 
prised the entire management of the 
business of the house, the keeping of 
accounts ; ordering of supplies ; oversee- 
ing of servants, giving them " their por- 
tion of meat in due season," and " paying 
their hire," as shown in the parables of 
the Gospel. This head-servant, or stew- 
ard, was generally an old slave, identified 
with the interests of the family, whose 
fidelity and capacities had been abundantly tested. To him 
also was delegated special guardianship over the son and 
heir of his master, from early childhood until the lad reached 




employmp:nts and servants. 155 

marriageable age ; not with reference to instruction, but as to 
his morals and health. Accordingly St. Paul writes : " The 
heir, as long as he is a child, diifereth nothing from a servant, 
though he be lord of all ; but is under tutors and governors until 
the time appointed of the father" (Gal. iv. 1, 2); and in the 
third chapter of the same Epistle he refers to the same trust- 
worthy servant (not a teacher, as the text would imply), where 
he makes use of this comprehensive figure: "The law was our 
schoolmaster to bring us unto Christ." 

The position of nurse in an Israelitish family was one of great 
dignity and importance : her authority was inferior only to that 
of a parent, while her devotion to her young charges merited all 
the reciprocity they could render her in afi'ection and gratitude. 
She Avas esteemed for her sagacity, for skill and experience in 
the delicate arts of her profession, for patience and gentleness, 
and, above all, for well-tried fidelity and friendship. She was pre- 
eminently identified with the fortunes of the family, and held, 
perhaps, a nearer place in its affections than any other dependent. 
When the eldest daughter was given in marriage, it was expected 
that the nurse should accompany the young bride, whom she had 
carried in her bosom, to her new home, and in a strange family 
circle to be her constant friend and adviser in very possible domes- 
tic emergencies ; especially was she to re-assume the duties of 
nurse when the bride became a mother. 

Thus, when Rebekah consented to go with the steward Eliezer, 
to become the wife of his master's son, her mother and brother 
sent her aAvay on her long journey to Canaan, attended by her 
damsels, and her nurse Deborah (Gen. xxv. 59), — a woman of 
such distinguished superiority, that her burial-place was recorded 
by the sacred historian (Gen. xxxv. 8). The aged Naomi ful- 
filled this office for Obed, the first-born son of her kinsman Boaz 
and Kuth, and the immediate ancestor of the inspired Psalmist : 
she " took the child and laid it in her bosom, and became nurse 
unto it" (Ruth iv. 16). 

The crippled Mephibosheth owed his life to the devotion of his 
nurse, who in a time of great public peril " took him up and 



156 



HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE, 



fled ; " but in such haste, poor woman ! that the five-year-old boy 
fell from her trembling arms and " became lame." Another 
notable example of devotion was the nurse of Joash, infant son 
of King Ahaziah, who at his father's death was saved by his aunt 
from the general massacre of the seed royal, ordered by Athaliah 
his grandmother. The child was hidden with his nurse, first in a 




THE HEBREW NURSE. 



" bed-chamber," and afterward " he was with her, hid in the 
house of the Lord six years," — until he began to reign, at seven 
years of age (2 Chron. xxii. 12). Beside these confidential upper 
servants of a large and wealthy household, there was a numer- 
ous retinue of slaves and hirelings, men and women, for the 
menial offices of the house : such as cooking, washing, sweeping, 



EMPLOYMENTS AND SERVANTS. 157 

no sinecure in Eastern lands), grinding the corn, cleaning the 
lamps, running on messages, and lastly — lowest service of all — 
taking off and putting on the master's sandals, and those of his 
guests, or carrying them wlien the master preferred to walk un- 
shod, lleference to this service is contained in the familiar words 
of John the Baptist, concerning his coming Lord : " He that 
Cometh after me is mightier than I, whose shoes I am not worthy 
to bear" (Matt. iii. 11); and again, "the latchet of whose shoes 
I am not Avorthy to stoop down and unloose " (Mark i. 7). There 
were also social functionaries brought in for special occasions of 
entertainment, such as the " governor of the feast," as at the 
marriage in Cana of Galilee (John ii. 8), whose duty it was to 
taste the wine before it was offered to the guests, and to oversee 
the servants in attendance. 

In the presence of master or mistress, the servant stood apart, 
attentively watching for orders, which were commonly indicated 
by gestures of the head or hands ; this familiar custom serves as 
an illustration to the sacred poet: "Behold, as the eyes of servants 
look unto the hand of their masters, and as the eyes of a maiden 
unto the hand of her mistress ; so our eyes wait upon the Lord 
our God, until that he have mercy upon us " (Ps. cxxiii. 2). 

The condition of the Hebrew bondsman was in edifying con- 
trast to that of the slave in heathen communities. In Greece 
no household was complete without its quota of slaves, who were, 
in the words of Aristotle, so many " living working tools and 
possessions " only. The smaller islands of the Archipelago and 
the mountainous regions of Asia Mmor were scoured by the 
pirates who furnished the slave-marts of Athens and other large 
cities with their human commodities. The Homan master, espe- 
cially, held his slaves in absolute subjection : their very lives were 
in his hand, — the same system of bondage that Ave find in the 
New Testament. Both master and slave, however, met as breth- 
ren ui the " household of faith," as exemplified in the early 
Church ; and to each in his place St. Paul addressed the "whole- 
some Avords : " " Servants, be obedient to them that are your 
masters accordmg to the flesh, Avith fear and tremblino-, in sin- 



158 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

gleiiess of your heart, as unto Christ;" " And, yc masters, do the 
same things unto them, forbearing threatening : knowing that 
your Master also is in heaven ; neither is there respect of persons 
with him" (Eph. vi. 5, 9); while another Epistle contains the 
admirable summary : " He that is called in the Lord, being a ser- 
vant, is the Lord's freeman : likewise also he that is called, being 
free, is Christ's servant" (1 Cor. vii. 22), — having in tender 
remembrance, doubtless, the parting words of the great Master 
to his disciples : " Henceforth I call you not servants, . . . but I 
have called you friends " (John xv. 15). 




YII. 



LARDER, KITCHEN, AND TABLE. 




^ O recline at meals was not an original practice of the 
Jews, but one which they adopted, probably from the 
Persians, who are supposed to have introduced the ex- 
traordinary fashion of " dinner-beds." The Greeks 
%■ and Romans also found it quite in accordance with their 
taste for foreign luxuries, and vied with each other in 
the elegance of these appointments. The first chapter of the 
Book of Esther affords a striking picture of Persian luxury, in 
its description of the feast given by King Ahasuerus, " when 
he showed the riches of his glorious kingdom and the honor 
of his excellent majesty many days, unto all his princes and 
servants." 

At the seven days' feast given by the king in Shushan, the 
palace, " in the court of the garden of the king's palace," there 
were even greater displays of royal magnificence, in which figure 
hangings, "white, green, and blue;" and "beds of gold and 
silver, on a pavement of red and blue and white and black 
marble." These " beds," it will be remembered, were the dinner- 
couches already described in the " Furniture of the House ; " 
and tables stood in front of them within easy reach _ of the 
guests. 

159 



160 



HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 



In the New Testament, wherever allusion is made to " sit- 
ting at meat," this custom of reclining is to be understood. 
This is especially noticeable in the accounts of the Last Supper, 

Avhere the " beloved dis- 



ciple " is described as 
leaning on the bosom 
of the Lord (John xiii, 
23) ; and in the touching 
scene at the feast given 




ASSYRIANS FEASTINa. 



by Simon, where " a 
woman in the city," 
" when she knew that 
Jesus sat at meat in the 
Pharisee's house, 
brought an alabaster 
box of ointment, and 

stood at his feet behind him weeping, and began to wash his 

feet with tears, and did wipe them with the hairs of her head, 

and kissed his feet, and anointed them with the ointment " (Luke 

vii. 38). Here the attitudes 

described leave no room for 

doubt as to the prevailing mode 

of "sitting" at table at that 

time. 

The ancient table (still in 

use among the peasants of 

remote rural districts of the 

Holy Land) was simply a cir- 
cular leathern bag, furnished 

with holes around the edge, 

through Avhich a cord was run. 

At meal-time this bag was 

spread upon the ground or 

the floor, with sometimes a small wooden stool placed in the 

centre to receive the principal dish. At the conclusion of the 

repast, the crumbs and bits of refuse were thrown out to the dogs 




ROMANS AT TABLE. 



LARDER, KITCHEN, AND TABLE. 



161 



or fowls, and the " table," drawn up by the cord, was hung on a 
peg or nail. It is easy to perceive how such a table could fulfil, 
in a figure, the malediction of the Psalmist upon his enemies : 
" Let their table become a snare before them ; and that which 
should have been for their welfare, let it become a trap " (Ps. 
Ixix. 22) : '■ snares " and " traps " being laid upon the ground to 
catch the prey of the huntsman. 

The ancient Egyptians used at meals a small, low table of 
wood or stone ; they sat on chairs and stools or on the floor, with 
the right knee raised 
to form a support for 
the hand. When 
Joseph received his 
brethren in his own 
house, and had given 
orders to " set on 
bread " (having be- 
fore told the " ruler 
of his house " that 
guests should dme 
with him at noon), 
" they set on for him 
by himself, and for 

them by themselves, and for the Egyptians, which did eat with him, 
by themselves : because the Egyptians might not eat bread with the 
Hebrews ; for that is an abomination unto the Egyptians. And 
they sat before him, the first-born according to his birthright, and 
the youngest according to his youth : and he took and sent messes 
unto them from before him " (Gen. xliii. 32-34). This narrative 
aff"ords a very particular account of the Egyptian manner of enter- 
taining at dinner, at that remote period ; it will be observed that it 
diff'ers essentially from the primitive practice among the Hebrews 
of sitting around a common dish, and eating from it Avith the fingers 
or with bits of bread. In the beautiful Book of Ruth we find an 
example of this homely custom, where Boaz, " a mighty man of 
wealth," said to the young stranger who had gleaned in his fields 




162 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

all the day : "At meal-time come thou hither, and eat of the 
bread, and dip thy morsel in the vinegar. And she sat beside 
the reapers : and he reached her parched corn, and she did eat, 
and was sufficed, and left" (ii. 14). In this connection also we 
are reminded of the solemn words of our Saviour, as he ate at 
the passover with his disciples : " And he answered and said. He 
that dippeth his hand with me in the dish, the same shall betray 
me" (Matthew) ; " It is one of the twelve, that dippeth with me in 
the dish " (Mark) ; " Behold, the hand of him that betrayeth me 
is with me on the table" (Luke); "He then lying on Jesus' 
breast saith unto him, Lord, Avho is if? Jesus answered. He it is, 
to whom I shall give a sop, when I have dipped it. And when 
he had dipped the sop, he gave it to Judas Iscariot, the son of 
Simon" (John). 

The religious as well as the social life of the Jews afforded 
many occasions of feasting ; since theh holy convocations, as well 
as their domestic recurrences of birthdays, marriages, weaning 
of children, treaties of any sort, sheep-shearings, and even 
burials, were all celebrated after this manner. But in general 
the Jew led the life of the Oriental of to-day, — one of extreme 
simplicity and abstemiousness, breaking his fast with the " kindly 
fruits of the earth," and eating meat, if at all, only once a day. 

It was the pious custom to give thanks at the commencement 
of each meal : the usual forms being, " Blessed be Thou, O Lord 
our God, the King of the world, who produced bread out of the 
earth ! " and, " Blessed be Thou, O Lord, the King of the world, 
who created the fruit of the vine ! " In allusion to this usage, 
St. Paul calls the consecrated wine of the Lord's Supper, "the 
cup of blessing" (1 Cor. x. 16). When our Saviour fed the 
five thousand with the " five barley-loaves and two small fishes," 
he " took the loaves, and when he had given thanks, he distrib- 
uted" them (John vi. 11); and after his resurrection, when he 
walked with the two disciples to Emmaus, it was not until, " as 
he sat at meat with them, he took bread and blessed it," that 
"their eyes were opened, and they knew him" TLuke xxiv. 30, 
31). 



LARDER, KITCHEN, AND TABLE. 163 

The food of the " chosen people," in common with all other 
intimately personal considerations, Avas regulated as to its quality 
by the Mosaic Law : beasts, birds, fishes, and insects were clean 
or unclean, according to certain distinctions carefully specified in 
the eleventh chapter of Leviticus. They were extremely scrupu- 
lous about eating or drinking with the Gentile nations, who in 
their turn had the same prejudices against the Jews : as exempli- 
fied of the Egyptians at the dinner in Joseph's house. So, at 
Jacob's well, the woman of Samaria answered our Lord's request, 
" Give me to drink," with the retort : " How is it that thou, being 
a Jew, askest drink of me, which am a woman of Samaria? for 
the Jews have no dealings with the Samaritans " (John iv. 9) : 
the Jews themselves carrying the prohibition still further, to 
include particular classes of their own nationality. One of their 
chief accusations against the Lord Jesus was that he ignored 
such self-righteous distinctions ; when the scribes and Pharisees 
saw him sitting at meat with these despised Jews, " they said 
unto his disciples, How is it that he eateth and drinketh with 
publicans and sinners?" (Mark ii. 16 ;) " Behold a gluttonous man, 
and a winebibber, a friend of publicans and sinners ! " (Luke vii. 
34.) The story of the Hebrew Judith in the Assyrian camp 
furnishes an example in point : Holofernes bade his servants to 
" prepare for her of his own meats, and that she should drink 
of his own wine. And Judith said, I will not eat thereof, lest 
there be an ofi'ence ; but provision shall be made for me of the 
things that I have brought" (Jud. xii. 1, 2). So too, when the 
four young men of the tribe of Judah were taken captive by 
Nebuchadnezzar, to become members of the royal household, 
" the king appointed them a daily provision of the king's meat, 
and of the wine which he drank ; " but, rather than violate the 
law of his nation, " Daniel purposed in his heart that he would 
not defile himself with the portion of the king's meat, nor with 
the wine which he drank " (Dan. i. 5, 8). 

One of the first gracious eff"ects of the gospel dispensation 
was to emancipate the Christian from this bondage of meats and 
drinks, and to assure him that " God is no respecter of persons." 



164 



HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 



From the day when, on the tanner's housetop in Joppa, St. Peter 
saw in a vision the vessel let down from heaven, " wherein were 
all manner of four-footed beasts of the earth, and wild beasts, 

and creeping things, and 
fowls of the ah- " (Acts x. 
12), and heard the voice 
saying, " Rise, Peter, kill 
and eat," until he wit- 
nessed before Cornelius 
the centurion, and his 
friends, the " good con- 
fession : " "Ye know how 
that it is an unlawful 
thing for a man that is a 
Jew to keep company, or 
come unto one of another 
nation ; but God hath 
showed me that I should 
not call any man common 
or unclean" (Acts x. 28), 
— this glorious truth, that 
" on the Gentiles also was 
poured out the Holy 
Ghost," was preached and 
contended for by the apos- 
tles until the last barrier 
of national prejudice in 
the Jewish convert was 
broken down. On this 
important subject St. 
Paul's dictum to the 
church at Corinth is final : 
"WhatsoeA^er is sold in 
the shambles, that eat, asking no question for conscience' sake ; " 
" Whether therefore ye eat, or drink, or whatsoever ye do, do 
all to the glory of God. Give none offence, neither to the 




LARDER, KITCHEN, AND TABLE. 165 

Jews, nor to the Gentiles, nor to the church of God" (1 Cor. x. 
25,31,32). 

Orientals have always been large consumers of bread, so that 
the word anciently stood for any sort of food ; the expressions, 
" set on bread," " sat down to eat bread," were equivalent to 
serving and partaking of a various meal. Wheat and barley 
were generally used in bread-making, with or without leaven. 
The first description of the primitive baking of bread appears in 
Gen. xviii. 6 : to entertain the three angels in the plains of 
Mamre, " Abraham hastened into the tent unto Sarah, and said. 
Make ready quickly three measures of fine meal ; knead it, and 
make cakes upon the hearth." Other methods of baking are 
already described in connection with " ovens." In later times, 
Avhen the Israelites dwelt in cities, there Avas, in addition to the 
household appliances, a public oven in every town, while in large 
cities there were many ; in Jerusalem, for example, there was a 
locality known as " the bakers' street" (Jer. xxxvii. 21). In Ho- 
sea, the allusions are evidently to one of these public bakers, and 
they expressly indicate the processes then in vogue among them : 
" As an oven heated by the baker, who ceaseth from raising after 
he hath kneaded the dough, until it be leavened. . . . For they 
have made ready then heart like an oven, while they lie in wait : 
then- baker sleepeth all the night ; in the morning it burneth 
as a flaming fire " (Hos. vii. 4, 6). 

There were various preparations of cereals, coarse and un- 
sifted, of which bread, or rather thin cakes, were made by simply 
mixing with milk or Avater, and baking on the hearth. Thus the 
prophet was commanded to make bread of " wheat, and barley, 
and beans, and lentiles, and millet, and fitches," and to eat of it, 
to typify the coming siege of Jerusalem. 

The husks, with which the Prodigal Son would fain have 
appeased his pangs of hunger, were the long-podded fruit of the 
carob-tree, sweetish to the taste. This fruit is often called " St. 
John's bread," because it has been suggested that this was what 
the great prophet ate in the wilderness ; the carob-tree being 
of the same family as our locust, and sometimes called by that 
name. 



166 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

Corn, in the Bible, is simply a general name for all kinds of 
cereals : there was no grain in Palestine to correspond to our 
maize, or Indian corn. The " parched corn," so often mentioned 
in the Old Testament, was prepared from the unripe grains of 
wheat : they were sometimes roasted in a pan ; or the heads, tied 
together, were held over a blaze until parched. This was the 
primitive refreshment offered by Boaz to Ruth, after her first 
day's gleaning (Ruth ii. 14) ; Abigail took " five measui-es of 
parched corn " to David, as part of her conciliatory gift ( 1 Sam. 
XXV. 18) ; in the second chapter of Leviticus it is called " green 
ears of corn dried by the fire." The wheat was also palatable in 
its green state, and the law permitted the " standing corn" to be 
gathered by any one passing through it (Deut. xxiii. 25) ; so 
when our Lord, on a sabbath day, " went through the cornfields, 
his disciples plucked the ears of corn, and did eat, rubbing them 
in their hands " (Luke vi. 1). But there is still another bread of 
the Bible, — that great miracle of the wilderness, whereby some 
thi'ee or four million souls were sustained for forty years, with 
" bread from heaven:" typical of the "Hidden Manna" — that 
" Living Bread," which after a lapse of so many centuries " came 
down from heaven, that a man may eat thereof and not die : " 
" Then said the Lord unto Moses, Behold, I will rain bread 
from heaven for you; and the people shall go out and gather a 
certain rate every day : . . . and in the morning the dew lay 
round about the host. And when the dew that lay was gone up, 
behold, upon the face of the wilderness there lay a small round 
thing, as small as the hoar frost on the ground. And when the 
children of Israel saw it, they said one to another. It is manna : 
for they wist not what it was. And Moses said unto them, This 
is the bread which the Lord hath given you to eat. And the 
house of Israel called the name thereof Manna : and it was like 
coriander seed, white ; and the taste of it was like wafers made 
with honey" (Exod. xvi. 4, 13-15, 31). This supply of " corn of 
heaven," " angels' food," manna [what is this /), failed not until the 
Lord brought his people into the good land of promise ; " a land 
of wheat and barley and vines and fig-trees and pomegranates ; 



LARDER, KITCHEN, AND TABLE. 



167 




ASSYRIAN BRONZE KNIVES. 



a land of oil olive, and honey ; " a land wherein they ate " bread 
without scarceness," and lacked nothing (Dent. viii. 8, 9) The 
manner of preparing meat for the table is illustrated by many 
examples in Scripture : in primitive times, the master of the 
house, whether rich or poor, was 
his own butcher ; and it was cus- 
tomary to cook the entire animal 
as soon as killed and dressed, 
probably on account of the diffi- 
culty of preserving fresh meat in 
a hot climate. On the two occa- 
sions referred to, while his super- 
natural guests waited, " Abraham 
ran unto the herd, and fetched 
a calf tender and good, and gave 
it unto a young man, and he 
hasted to dress it" (Gen. xviii. 
7). And when Joseph gave or- 
ders to his steward for the entertainment of his brethren, he 
charged him to bring them to the house, and then to " slay and 

make ready ; " yet the dinner 
was to take place at noon. 
With the same rude haste, 
the Witch of Endor killed 
the " fat calf" she had in the 
house, and set it before Saul 
and his servants, during a visit 
that could have lasted only a 
few hours (1 Sam. xxviii. 24). 
Egyptian monuments 
abound in representations of 
the household custom as to 
the killing of animals for the 
table : it was done by the men- 
servants in the courtyards of private dwellmgs ; and, while poul- 
terers' shops are largely represented, there are no meat-markets 




EGYPTIAN COOKS. 



168 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

or butchers' shops, — from which omission it is inferred that 
flesh-meat was used only on occasions of special feasting. The 
cow was held sacred by the Egyptians, and never used for food ; 
swine were regarded with abhorrence. 

The fatted calf was esteemed the choicest dish to offer a guest, 
but the flesh of the ox was also used as in our own day. Solo- 
mon assured his readers that, " Better is a dinner of herbs where 
love is, than a stalled ox and hatred therewith" (Prov. xv. 17); 
while the historian records of that magnificent prince that the 
daily provision for his royal table included " ten fat oxen, and 
twenty oxen out of the pastures, and a hundred sheep, besides 
harts, and roebucks, and fallow deer, and fatted fowl" (1 Kings 
iv. 23). Nehemiah says of his own hospitable table, where he 
entertained " one hundred and fifty of the Jews and rulers," 
during the rebuilding of the wall of Jerusalem : " Now that 
which was prepared for me daily was one ox and six choice 
sheep; also fowls were prepared for me, and once in ten days 
stores of all sorts of wine" (Neh. v. 18). 

In the parable of the marriage of the king's son, the royal 
proclamation went forth : " Behold, I have prepared my dinner ; 
my oxen and my fatlings are killed" (Matt. xxii. 4); and the 
feast with which the rejoicing father makes merry over the return 
of the repentant prodigal is furnished with " the fatted calf" 
(Luke XV. 23). 

The sheep does not appear ever to have been used as food by 
the Egyptians, to whom even its keepers, the shepherds, were an 
abomination. It is often mentioned in Scripture as an article 
of food in great request among the Jews : " five sheep ready 
dressed " constituted a part of the handsome present with which 
Abigail hastened to appease the anger of David against Nabal 
her husband (1 Sam. xxv. 18) ; Adonijah, the son of David, 
" slew sheep and oxen and fat cattle by the stone of Zoheleth," 
for a treasonable feast (1 Kings i. 9) ; and the Psalmist com- 
plained to God : " Thou hast given us like sheep appointed for 
meat; and hast scattered us among the heathen" (Ps. xliv. 11). 

Of our familiar barnyard fowls there is no mention in the Old 



lardp:r, kitchen, and table. 



169 



Testament ; and the only place in the New Testament in which 
the hen mth her brood appears is in our Lord's compassionate 
lament over the Holy City, as he foretold her destruction: " O 
Jerusalem, Jerusalem ! thou that killest the prophets, and stonest 
them which are sent unto thee, hoAV often would I have gathered 
thy children together, even as a hen gathereth her chickens under 




^nOW OFTEX WOULD I HAVE GATHERED THY CHILDREN TOGETHER.' 



her wings, and ye would not!" (Matt, xxiii. 37.) The Rabbis pro- 
hibited the keeping of fowls within the walls of Jerusalem ; but 
that the ordinance was probably not -enforced, we may infer from 
the cock-crowing in connection with St. Peter's cowardly denial 
of his Master. It is supposed that the Romans introduced these 
domestic fowls into Judisa. The use of hens' eggs for food is 
probably indicated by the words of our Lord : "If he shall ask an 



170 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

egg, will he offer him a scorpion?" (Luke xi. 12.) Jeremiah 
employs the figure : "As the partridge sitteth on eggs, and hatch- 
eth them not" (xvii. 11), perhaps because she was ruthlessly- 
hunted then as she is now, in the East ; and Job asks : "Is there 
any taste in the white of an eggV (vi. 6.) 

The arts of the hunter and the fowler Avere ardently studied 
and pursued by the ancient peoples of the Bible, at first for food, 
the legitimate objects of such pursuits, but afterwards for the 
recreation and excitement they afforded. Solomon thinks of the 
amateur sportsman when he says : " The slothful man roasteth 
not that which he took in hunting" (Prov. xii. 27). In Esau we 
meet with the ideal Oriental hunter, — the purveyor of meat for 
the family, wild and fierce in his pleasures, with great strength 
and endurance, courting the hardships and the danger for the love 
of them : his weapons, " thy quiver and thy bow," are invoked 
by his aged father, who longed for the venison and the " savory 
meat ; " while allusions to traps, pitfalls, and snares, gins and 
nets, are frequent, in both the Old and New Testaments, espe- 
cially in their metaphorical application to the souls of men. The 
Psalmist sings of the godly : " Surely he shall deliver thee from 
the snare of the fowler " (Ps. xci. 3) ; and assures his own soul 
of the same divine protection : " He shall pluck my feet out of 
the net." St. Paul, in a forcible figure, represents the great 
Enemy as a mighty hunter, and indicates the only means by 
which "they may recover themselves out of the snare of the devil, 
who are taken captive [taken alive, marginal reading] by him at 
his will " (2 Tim. ii. 26). The earliest reference to the chase in 
the Bible is to " Nimrod, the mighty hunter before the Lord" 
(Gen. X. 9). 

The ancient Egyptians were enthusiasts in the chase : their 
monuments are rich in representations of the Aveapons, traps, 
hounds, game-beaters, game-bags, and every other requisite for 
the successful prosecution of the sport. The Assyrian tablets 
also abound in scenes of the chaae. The lion was their noblest 
game ; and on the monuments of Nineveh royal triumphs over 
this king of beasts are recorded side by side with martial victo- 



LAEDER, KITCHEN, AND TABLE. 



173 



ries. The palaces of Babylon were in like manner adorned with 
mural paintings of noted encounters in the chase. 

The spoils of the 
commercial hunter 
and fowler were in 
great request for the 
tables of the Egyp- 
tians and the luxuri- 
ous Assyrians and 
Babylonians. They 
consisted of Avild 
goats, — the flesh 
closely resembling 
venison, — gazelles, 
hares, wild geese and 
ducks, teal, quails, 
partridge, and an end- 
less variety of birds. 
The Hebrews partook 
of these delicacies 
within the wholesome 
restrictions of the law, 
Avhich pronounced 
even upon the im- 
cleanness of birds and 
" creeping things." 
Only three of the lat- 
ter class were permit- 
ted to be eaten, — the 
grasshopper, beetle, 
and locust. The lo- 
cust is especially in- 
teresting in its con- 
nection with the great 

Baptist, of Avhom the early Gospel narrative relates that "his 
meat was locusts and wild honey" (Matt. iii. 4). There were 




174 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

various methods of preparing this pecuharly Oriental article of 
food : sometimes they were stewed, and dressed in oil ; or they 
might be roasted, minus the legs, by setting them on long wooden 
spits before the fire. When breadstufFs were scarce, it was not 
unusual to dry them, and to make cakes of their pulverized flesh, 
which were baked on the hearth. The Arabs and other wander- 
ing tribes of the desert use the locust as food to this day : they 
roast or dry them in the sun, pack them in salt, and cut slices 
from the compact mass as required. 

The Orientals have always been large consumers of fish : the 
Hebrews were restricted by law to those having scales and fins. 
The Nile, the Sea of Galilee, and all the lakes and rivers of 
Palestine, abounded in fish : so that fishing was a most important 
industry, especially in the time of our Saviour, and occupied a 
large proportion of the peasant population. This calling was 
pursued in small skiffs usually at night, and chiefly with nets and 
drag-nets. Jerusalem received its supply of fish mainly from 
JToppa, forty miles off, the seaport associated in the Old Testament 
with Jonah, the recalcitrant prophet, and in the New with the 
raising of the benevolent Dorcas from the dead by St. Peter, as 
well as with that apostle's visit to Simon the tanner, and all its 
incalculable results (Acts ix. 36, 43). Fish was also brought to 
Jerusalem from the Sea of Galilee, a distance of eighty miles. 
We read again and again of the " fish-gate " of Jerusalem, which 
was probably the principal market-place in the city for that 
important article of food. When the pious Nehemiah undertook 
the repairs of the holy city, he records of this locality, " But the 
fish-gate did the sons of Hassenaah build, who also laid the 
beams thereof, and set up the doors thereof, the locks thereof, 
and the bars thereof" (Neh. iii. 3) ; and he complains of certain 
"men of Tyre" (that "renowned city," "strong in the sea"), 
" which brought fish and all manner of ware, and sold on the sab- 
bath unto the children of Judah, and in Jerusalem" (Neh. xiii. 
16). A great variety of shell-fish, prohibited to the Jews, were 
consumed by their Gentile neighbors : among these were the 
oyster, clam, shrimps, crabs, lobsters, and many others quite unfa- 




liillM^^^^ 



LARDER, KITCHEN, AND TABLE. 177 

miliar to modern palates. When Moses blessed the tribes of 
Israel before his death, he said of the tribe of Zebulun, on the 
Mediterranean shore : " They shall suck of the abundance of 
the seas, and of treasures hid in the sand" (Deut. xxxiii. 19): 
this prophetic utterance is interpreted to refer to the fish, and 
especially to the shell-fish which burrow in the sand of the sea- 
shore. 

It will be remembered, that, in.the first plague sent upon Egypt, 
the destruction of the fish was a calamity of incalculable gravity 
to a people who depended upon this diet ; and in the " burden of 
Egypt," the mxost alarming utterances of the prophet touched 
upon this subject: "The fishers also shall mourn, and all they 
that cast angle into the brooks shall lament, and they that spread 
nets upon the waters shall languish. And they shall be broken 
in the purposes thereof, all that make sluices and ponds for fish " 
(Isa. xix. 8, 10). One of the homesick longings of the Israelites 
in the wilderness was for this familiar food : " We remember the 
fish Avhich we did eat in Egypt freely " (Num. xi. 5). 

This whole subject of fish, fisheries, and fishermen is replete 
with interest for Bible-lovers in its intimate association with our 
Lord's ministry, as we follow it step by step through the Gospel 
records. In both instances of the miraculous feeding of the 
multitude (John vi. ; Matt. xv. 34), " two small fishes" and "a few 
little fishes " bear their important part ; to pay the tribute-money 
demanded by the collectors at Capernaum, our Lord elects a fish 
from the Sea of Galilee to bring the coin in its mouth to Peter, 
the apostle ; on two occasions he commands a miraculous draught 
of fishes to fill the nets of his humble disciples, who have toiled 
all night and caught nothing (Luke v. 6 ; John xxi. 6). The 
second of these mkacles took place after the Saviour's glorious 
resurrection ; as soon as the fishermen " were come to land, they 
saw a fire of coals there, and fish laid thereon, and bread. . . . 
Jesus then cometh, and taketh bread, and giveth them, and fish 
likewise" (John xxi. 9, 13). On another solemn and mysterious 
occasion, the risen, but not yet ascended. Lord met his timid 
disciples on a Sunday evening, when they were assembled with 



178 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

closed doors " for fear of the Jews," and, to re-assure them, asked 
for food: "they gave him a piece of a broiled fish, and of an 
honeycomb; and he took it, and did eat before them" (Luke 
xxiv. -12). 

During the persecutions of the early Christian Church, the 
word "fish" became a watchword with the faithful; because its 
Greek name, ichthus, is formed of the initials of the Greek words, 
" Jesus Christ, Son of God, Saviour." Several kinds of fish 
were held sacred in Egypt, and the priests were prohibited from 
any sort of fish food. Dagon, the great god of the Phihstines, 
was half man, half fish : he was worshipped also in Assyria and 
in India. 



ip^gOT WITHSTANDING the abstemious and simple diet 
^L^R affected by the Orientals, they have from the earliest 
/^^/=?^ times been excessively addicted to highly seasoned food, 
prepared with spices, condiments, and various aromatic herbs. 
The "mint, and anise, and cummin," on which the Pharisees so 
scrupulously paid tithes, to the omission of " weightier matters 
of the law" (Matt, xxiii. 23), Avere among these condiments, 
to which may be added saffron, garlic, and onions. Dishes 
dressed in this manner constitute the " savory meat," such as 
Isaac loved (Gen. xxvii. 14). Salt was of course a necessary in- 
gredient in these dishes : " Can that which is unsavory be eaten 
without salt V (Job vi. 6.) The salt which has "lost his savor," 
mentioned in the Sermon on the Mount, was that which is pro- 
duced by the evaporation of sea- water, and which is liable, from 
the extreme heat, to lose its saline properties, when it is indeed 
" good for nothing but to be cast out, and to be trodden under 
foot of men" (Matt. v. 13). Salt was invested with peculiar 
significance by the Orientals : it was the symbol of perpetuity, 
purity, and fidehty. In the charge to Aaron, concerning his 
"part and inheritance among the children of Israel," it is declared 
to be " a covenant of salt forever before the Lord," — something 
absolutely indissoluble. To " eat salt " with a person, even among 



LARDER, KITCHEN, AND TABLE. 181 

the modern Arabs, is a pledge of mutual and perpetual friend- 
ship. 

The oil of olives was another indispensable element in Eastern 
cookery, and used, as we use butter and lard, in the composition 
of almost every dish: the olives themselves were eaten, and, when 
pickled, formed an agreeable relish. The culture of the olive was 
only second to that of the vine in Palestine, where the failure of 
the crop was deplored as a national calamity. The sacred writers 
employ the olive as the emblem of beauty, luxuriance, strength, 
and the divine blessing. Its leaf has been the symbol of peace, 
reconciliation, ever since the dove returned with it to the ark. 
Olive-trees and cellars of oil are enumerated among the royal 
treasures of David and Rehoboam (1 Chron. xxvii. 28 ; 2 Chron. 
xi. 11); and the Psalmist in exulting confidence exclaims, "I am 
like a green olive-tree in the house of God " (Ps. lii. 8). One of 
the methods for gathering the fruit of the olive-trees was by 
beating ; hence the humane law, in the interest of the poor : 
'• When thou beatest thine olive tree, thou shalt not go over the 
boughs again : it shall be for the stranger, the fatherless, and for 
the widow " (Deut. xxiv. 20). The tree lives to a great age, — 
for several centuries, we are told, — producing fruit when it is 
little more than a hollow shell. 

When the Israelites " fell a-lusting" in the wilderness, it was 
not only for the flesh-pots, and the fish of Egypt, but for its 
tempting variety of vegetable food, — "the cucumbers, and the 
melons, and the leeks, and the onions, and the garlic " (Num. xi. 
5). In her days of fruitfulness Palestine abounded in these sum- 
mer vegetables, many of them growing wild : such as asparagus, 
and artichokes, egg-plant, and cauliflower. The lentiles, of which 
Esau's pottage was made, are of the same family as our garden- 
pea, but smaller : red lentiles, still sold in Eastern markets, are 
considered the best, and are made into a pottage pronounced 
very savory by modern travellers. Mandrakes, or love-plants, are 
stemless, with long narrow leaves, bearing rich purple blossoms, 
and, " in the days of wheat-harvest," a yellow and pulpy fruit, the 
size of a large plum. It is said that the same superstitious 



182 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

notions attach now to the effects of eating these plants that pre- 
vailed in the days of Rachel, who begged them of her fruitful 
sister (Gen. xxx. 14-16). This plant was particularly esteemed 
for its strong odor, so offensive to Europeans : it still grows in 
Syria and in the neighborhood of Jerusalem, where the women 
are fond of dressing their bosoms with its flowers. This explains 
the allusion in Solomon's Song : " The mandrakes give a smell ; 
and at our gates are all manner of pleasant fruits" (vii. 13). 
The " beans " mentioned in 2 Sam. xvii. 28, and in Ezek. iv. 9, 




OLIVE-JARS. 



is quite a different article of diet from that known to us by the 
same name. It is of the same family, but bears in its pods large 
coarse seeds, that are eaten only by the poorer classes, and fed to 
animals. 

"Butter of kine, and milk of sheep," asses, goats, and cows, and 
even camels, were highly prized as articles of daily consumption 
in the East. The first butter and milk mentioned in the Bible is 
that which was set before his angel-guests by Abraham (Gen, 
xviii. 8). The word rendered " butter " in this passage commonly 
signifies curdled milk, — the same that Jael gave to Sisera, and of 
which Deborah and Barak sana 



LARDER, KITCHEN, AND TABLE. 183 

him milk ; she brought forth butter in a lordly dish " ( Judg. v. 
25). Here, again, the butter is evidently a preparation of curdled 
milk, much esteemed as a beverage from remote antiquity. The 
Arabs have a tradition that its compo- 
sition was divinely revealed to Abra- 
ham ; while another legend asserts 
that an angel brought Hagar a draught 
of sour milk (kben), when she and the 
youth Ishmael were perishing with 
thirst in the wilderness. But we have 
Solomon's proverb, or rather a part of 
it, which goes to prove that there was 
some preparation called butter, made 
according to our own processes: 
" Surely the churning of milk bringeth 
forth butter" (Prov. xxx. 33). This 
churning was done by shaking or 
treading upon a goat-skin, until the 
separation of the butter took place. 

Isaiah prophesied of the Virgin-born 
Immanuel : " Butter and honey shall 
he eat " (Isa. vii. 15). This seems to 
have been a favorite combination in 
ancient times, and is supposed to indi- 
cate a beverage of the curdled milk, 
SAveetened with honey, or preparations 
of those two ingredients, to be spread 
upon bread: they are used in these 
forms by the modern Arabs, and 
esteemed a great delicacy. " Honey 
and butter" were among the supplies 
sent to David in his sore straits at 

Mahanaim (2 Sam. xvii. 29). Job speaks of " brooks of honey 
and butter" (xx. 17); and the mystic Bridegroom: " Thy lips, 
O my spouse, di-op as the honeycomb: honey and milk are 
under thy tongue" (S. of Sol., iv. 11). Palestine was described 




184 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

as " a land flowing with milk and honey," while yet " Moses kept 
the flock of Jethro, his father-in-law " (Exod. iii. 8) : such it 
proved to the weary wanderers of the wilderness, and even now 
it scarcely belies that attractive title. David writes of the 
"honey out of the rock" (Ps. Ixxxi. 16), referring to the swarms 
of wild bees that deposited their honey in hollow trees or the 
clefts of rocks, — the " wild honey" that St. John the Baptist 
ate in the wilderness ; in Solomon's Song, the bridegroom sings : 
" I have eaten my honeycomb with my honey" (v. 1); and in his 
Proverbs he warns the lovers of this dainty : " Hast thou found 
honey'? eat so much as is sufficient for thee. ... It is not good 
to eat much honey" (xxv. 16, 27). 

Cheese was a very common article of food to these peoples of 
flocks and herds. The entire Tyropreon Valley of the Holy City 
was occupied by dairies and their products : hence its name, 
" valley of cheesemongers." Cheese was also in later times im- 
ported for epicures from the Poman province of Bithynia. This 
article is mentioned but three times in the Bible, and in each 
instance the different word employed indicates a different variety. 
The ten cheeses sent by Jesse, father of David, to the captain in 
Saul's camp, seem to have been soft cheeses, " ten sections of 
curds" (1 Sam. xvii. 18) ; the " cheese of kine," sent to David at 
Mahanaim, implies that it was grated (2 Sam. xvii. 29) ; while 
the reference in Job x. 10, evidently is to curdled milk: "Hast 
thou not poured me out as milk, and curdled me like cheese?" 
The cheese now used in the East is made into small cakes, 
strongly salted, and of quality very inferior to the products of our 
dairies. 

The Holy Land abounded in " summer fruits," of almost every 
kind : grapes, figs, dates, apples, mulberries, quinces, pomegran- 
ates, oranges, bananas, apricots, olives, almonds, a variety of 
delicious melons, and a few pears, do not complete the list. The 
fruit of the vine has been from earliest ages the principal product 
of the lands of the Bible : the soil and climate of Palestine, and 
especially of particular districts of Judaea, were so perfectly adapt- 
ed to grape-culture, that they became famous for the production of 



LARDER, KITCHEN, AND TABLE. 187 

certain varieties. The finest grapes came from the western slopes 
of Mount Lebanon, from Helbon, En-gedi, and the vales of 
Eshcol {cluster) and Sorek [a choice vine), in Judea. With the 
exception of the delicious white grape of Sorek, the vines of the 
Holy Land produced only red and black fruit : hence, in Scrip- 
ture, the juice is called "the blood of the grape," translated "red 
wine " (Isa. xxvii. 2). Various sorts of wine were produced from 
the vineyards of Palestine, aU highly esteemed for their strength 
and aroma : the wine of Helbon and the wine of Lebanon were 
particularly choice, and are distinguished by name, by Ezekiel 
(xxvii. 18) and by Hosea (xiv. 7). 

Wme, throughout the Bible, is accounted one of the great 
blessings of the Almighty to his dependent creatures : the Psalm- 
ist, calling upon his own soul to bless the Lord, gratefully enu- 
merates the " wine that maketh glad the heart of man, and oil to 
make his face to shine, and bread which strengtheneth man's 
heart" (civ. 15). It formed part of the domestic stores of every 
well-to-do household, and was freely dispensed at all social enter- 
tamments. The first cultivator of the vine, mentioned in Scrip- 
ture, was Noah ; and of his indulgence in the fruit of his labor it 
is recorded that "he drank of the wine, and was drunken" (Gen. 
ix. 21). There is no doubt that succeeding generations were not 
lacking in those who folloAved this example of the illustrious 
patriarch, and that strong drinks were used to great excess, not 
only by the Gentile nations, but by the Jews. The sacred writ- 
ings abound in denunciations of this abuse and perversion of a 
recognized blessing; and, in vivid portraiture of the effects of 
gross indulgence, Isaiah pronounces his maledictions : " Woe 
unto them that rise up early in the morning, that they may follow 
strong drink ; that continue until night, till wine inflame them ! 
woe unto them that are mighty to drink wine, and men of strength 
to mingle strong drink ! Woe to the drunkards of Ephraim ; . . . 
but they also have erred through wine, and through strong diink 
are out of the way ; the priest and the prophet have erred 
thi'ough strong drink, they are swallowed up of wine, they are 
out of the way through strong drink " (Isa. v. 11, 22, xxviii. 1,7); 



188 HOME-LIFK IN THP: BIBLE. 

and Solomon sums up his "winged words" of warning against the 
prevaiHng vice, in this masterly presentation of the subject: 
"Who hath woe? who hath sorrow? who hath contentions? who 
hath babbling ? who hath wounds without cause ? who hath red- 
ness of eyes ? They that tarry long at the wine ; they that go to 
seek mixed wine. Look not thou upon the wine when it is red, 
when it giveth his color in the cup, when it moveth itself aright. 
At the last it biteth like a serpent, and stingeth like an adder " 
(Prov. xxiii. 29-32). In " the words of king Lemuel, the prophecy 
that his mother taught him," however, is embalmed this epitome 
of feminine wisdom (not less profound, perhaps, because, by the 
verdict of all the ages, it can only be intuitive) on a question 
more " vexed " to-day, if possible, than in the reign of the mag- 
nificent Solomon : "It is not for kings, O Lemuel, it is not for 
kings to drink wine ; nor for princes strong drink : lest they 
drink, and forget the law, and pervert the judgment of any of the 
afflicted. Give strong drink unto him that is ready to perish, 
and wine unto those that be of heavy hearts. Let him drink, and 
forget his poverty, and remember his misery no more " (Prov. 
xxxi. 4-7). From the Wisdom of the Son of Sirach of a later 
period, some two centuries before Christ, is evolved a like con- 
clusion : " Wine is as good as life to a man, if it be drunk mod- 
erately ; what life is then to a man that is without wine ? For it 
was made to make men glad. Wine, measurably drunk and in 
season, bringeth gladness of the heart, and cheerfulness of the 
mind. But wine drunken with excess maketh bitterness of the 
mind, with brawling and quarrelling " (Ecclus. xxxi. 27-29). 

By " mixed wine " the Greeks and Romans always meant wine 
diluted with water ; the Hebrews, on the contrary, meant wine 
made more intoxicating by the addition of opiates, strong spices, 
honey, and other ingredients. It Avas customary with the Romans 
to administer to a criminal, about to be executed, a stupefying 
potion to alleviate his sufferings : it is said that a society of 
charitable women in Jerusalem pledged themselves to this office 
of mercy. So, in our Saviour's passion : " They gave him to 
drink wine mingled with myrrh : but he received it not " (Mark 
XV. 23). 



LARDER, KITCHEN, AND TABLE. 



191 



The grape was highly prized in Egypt, and the various stages 
of its cultivation are exhibited in the ancient sculptures. The 
Babylonians Avere famous for then* high living, which included 




excessive indulgence in the finest wines. Of the Ninevite monu- 
ments, Eawhnson says: "In the banquet-scenes of the sculptures 
it is drinking, and not eating, that is represented. Attendants 
dip the wine-cups into a huge bowl, or vase, which stands on the 



192 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

ground and reaches as high as a man's chest, and carry them full 
of liquor to the guests, who straightway fall into a carouse. . . . 
Every guest holds in his right hand a wine-cup of a most elegant 



The Jews, in common with other Oriental people, were careful 
to strain their wine before drinking, to rid it of the lees and of 
the insects that in a hot climate would naturally swarm around 
the sweet mixture ; and for fear of violating the law, which 
forbade the eating of " creeping things " (Lev. xi. 2i5, 43). The 
Buddhists have the same practice in deference to a similar scruple. 
In denouncing the scribes and Pharisees, our Lord points to this 
familiar custom : " Ye blind guides, which strain at [out) a gnat, 
and swallow a camel!" (Matt, xxiii. 24.) A very elegant wine- 
strainer, found in the ruins of Herculaneum, is described by 
Winckelmann. 

It is common in the East at the present day to cool wines 
and summer drinks with snow or ice ; and it is supposed from 
this Proverb, " As the cold of snow in the time of harvest, so is 
a faithful messenger to them that send him : for he refresheth 
the soul of his masters" (xxv. 13), that it was the practice in 
Solomon's luxurious time ; Mount Lebanon probably then, as 
now, suj)plied snow to the neighboring country from its inex- 
haustible stores, for this refreshing purpose. The raisins pro- 
duced by drying the ripe fruit in bunches were considered a very 
important provision for domestic use : "a hundred bunches of 
raisins " constituted part of the present brought on "a couple 
of asses" by Ziba to King David (2 Sam. xvi. 1); and his 
offering from Abigail, his future wife, contained " a hundred 
clusters " of the same dried fruit (1 Sam. xxv. 18). The 
Hebrew word translated " flagon " in various Old Testament 
texts means a "cake" of compressed raisins; the "vessels of 
flagons," in Isa. xxii. 24, is an exception, and is correctly 
expressed by our English word. 

A sort of treacle, obtained by boiling down the juice of the 
grapes until it becomes a thick sirup, was much esteemed by 
the ancients, and is still used in the East. It is called by the 



lardp:r, kitchen, and table. 195 

Mohammedans dibs ; and its Hebrew name is honey. It is this 
sweet compound, and not bees' honey, that must be understood 
in many passages Avhere it occurs in the Bible. This sirup was 
eaten on bread, and di'unk mixed with water or sour milk : 
children were especially fond of it. 

Several kinds of vinegar, or sour wine, were used as a bever- 
age by the ancient Eomans and by the Hebrews ; or as a stimu- 
lating sauce, into which to sop their bread or parched corn at a 
harvest meal or on a fatiguing march. Such was the vinegar 
into which Boaz invited Ruth to dip her morsel, after the day's 
gleaning. The "wine mingled with myrrh," to which we have 
already referred in connection with the solemn details of the 
crucifixion, is in- the other Gospel records termed vinegar : " They 
gave him vinegar to drink mingled with gall : and when he had 
tasted thereof, he would not drink " (Matt, xxvii. 34) ; an inci- 
dent prophetically presented by David : " They gave me also gall 
for my meat ; and in my thirst they gave me vinegar to drink " 
(Ps. Ixix. 21). 

There was also a stronger and more sharply aciduous kind of 
vinegar, not intended for a beverage : this is referred to in Prov. 
X. 26 : "as vinegar to the teeth ; " and in xxv. 20 : as " vinegar 
upon nitre." 

We may not close a necessarily brief demonstration of this 
most fruitful subject of the vine, — alike in its literal and spir- 
itual significance an almost inexhaustible theme, — without re- 
minding the reader of Him of whom the Church sings : " For 
thy love is better than wine " (Solomon's Song i. 2) ; who said 
to his apostles on the night of the last paschal supper : " I will 
not drink henceforth of this fruit of the vine, until that day 
when I drink it new with you in my Father's kingdom ; " and 
after supper when " he took the cup, and gave thanks, and gave 
it to them, saying. Drink ye all of it ; for this is my blood of the 
new testament which is shed for many for the remission of sins " 
(Matt. xxvi. 29, 27, 28). 

Among the most important of the strictly Oriental fruits were 
figs, dates, and pomegranates. Figs were, and still are, a staple 



196 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

product in all Eastern countries. There are several varieties of 
this fruit, of which two kinds only are named in the Bible : the 
" early fig," which ripens in June, is described by Isaiah as " the 
hasty fruit before the summer" (xxviii. 4), and by Hosea (vii. 
1), as "the first ripe" fruit. The "green figs," of Solomon's 
Song ii. 13, constitute the main crop, which does not ripen until 
August. Bethphage of the New Testament, near the village of 
Bethany, signifies " house of green figs." Some varieties of the 
fig were eaten fresh as they came from the tree ; Avhile others 
were allowed to remain to dry on the branch, and were then 
pressed for home consumption. In early times they seem to 
have been a common article of food, and to have been esteemed 
for certain medicinal properties. "Two hundred cakes of figs" 
are enumerated in the present of Abigail to David, already 
referred to (1 Sam. xxv. 18). The fig-tree was regarded by the 
Egyptians as one of the choicest products of the earth, especially 
the sycamore-fig, which is still common in their country. The 
small, sweet fruit of this tree closely resembles the fig ; but it 
requires to be punctured, several days before it is fully ripe, with 
a sharp instrument or with the finger-nail. This was at one time 
the humble occupation of the prophet Amos : " I was no prophet," 
he said to Amaziah, " neither was I a prophet's son ; but I was 
an herdsman, and a gatherer of sycamore fruit" (Amos vii. 14). 
The fig-tree does not grow to a great height ; but it affords a very 
grateful shade, and on this account is often planted in private 
courtyards : to " sit every man under his vine and under his fig- 
tree " (Mic. iv. 4), became the synonyme of domestic peace and 
repose. 

The palm-tree, and its fruit of dates, was another rich source of 
profit and pleasure to the ancient dwellers in the Holy Land. 
Jericho was called " the city of palm-trees " (Dent, xxxiv. 3) ; 
and Bethany — the home of Lazarus and his sisters, those dear 
friends of Jesus — means " #Ae house of dates,'' as it might well 
have been from its situation on the Mount of Olives, where the 
multitude " took branches of the palm-trees, and Avent forth to 
meet him," at the time of our Lord's victorious entry into Jerusa- 



LARDP]R, KITCHEN, AND TABLE. 



199 



lem. Properly speaking, the palm-tree has no " branches," but 
immense leaves, often twelve feet in length, di'ooping in graceful 
curves toward the ground. The fruit grows in chisters, weigh- 




DATE-PALMS. 



ing from fifteen to twenty pounds each : when ripe, they are 
plucked by hand, or shaken into a net held to receive them. 
Some are eaten fresh, and some laid aside for household stores. 



200 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

The date yields a rich sirup, which, duly prepared, became the 
date- wine so highly esteemed by the ancients. 

The pomegranate was equally admired for its beauty as a flow- 
ering bush, and for its agreeable fruit. The flowers are of a 
brilliant scarlet or orange ; the fruit is the size of an orange, and 
of a ruddy flesh-color: "As a piece of a pomegranate are thy 
temples within thy locks " (S. of Sol., vi. 7): it has a hard rind, and 
is filled with a pulp of delightful flavor. Its juice was anciently 
made into wine, and used for a summer drink: thus, in Solomon's 
Song : "I would cause thee to drink of spiced wine of the juice 
of my pomegranate " (viii. 2). The pomegranate was chosen, for 
its graceful shape, as a decoration for the sku't of the high 
priest's robe : " Beneath upon the hem of it thou shalt make 
pomegranates of blue, and of purple, and of scarlet, round about 
the hem thereof; and bells of gold between them round about: 
a golden bell and a pomegranate, a golden bell and a pome- 
granate, upon the hem of the robe round about " (Exod. xxviii. 
33, 34). That this fruit was well known to the Egyptians, is 
attested by their monuments, and by the complainings of the 
Israelites in the wilderness of Zin: "It is no place of seed, or of 
figs, or of vines, or of pomegranates " (Num. xx. 5). 

The apple proper is very rare in the Holy Land, and its fruit 
inferior : learned writers disagree as to the particular fruit meant 
by the " apple " of Scripture ; they have urged the claims, succes- 
sively, of the citron, orange, quince, and apricot, without positively 
deciding in favor of either. The name, in the Hebrew, signifies 
breathing forth, which would seem to indicate a peculiar fragrance. 

" Nuts and almonds " were among the gifts sent by Jacob to 
Joseph in Egypt : " Take of the best fruits in the land in your 
vessels, and carry down the man a present, a little balm, and a 
little honey, spices and myrrh, nuts and almonds" (Gen. xliii. 11). 
The bridegroom in the Canticles " went down into the garden of 
nuts, to see the fruits of the valley" (S. of Sol., vi. 11). In the first 
text, the reference is to the fruit of the pistachio-tree, not known 
to the Egyptians, — a thin-shelled nut, having a green meat simi- 
lar to the walnut ; and to the oval fruit, familiar to us, of the 



LARDER, KITCHEN, AND TABLE. 201 

light and graceful almond-tree, whose delicate white blossoms are 
used by " the Preacher " in a figure, to depict the hoary head of 
old age (Eccles. xii. 5). There are two kinds of almond-trees : 
the one, less common, producing soft-shelled nuts ; the other, the 
hard-shelled and bitter. The nuts referred to in Canticles were 
probably a variety, including almonds and filberts, the pistachio, 
and the walnut : this last is known to us as the " English wal- 
nut," the fruit of a noble tree, common to all parts of the East. 

In conclusion, it may not be unprofitable to consider the lessons 
of spiritual significance and application, drawn from this general 
subject of meats and drinks by Christ and his apostles. One of 
the most pointed of these is found in the Sermon on the Mount : 
" I say unto you, Take no thought for your life, what ye shall eat, 
or what ye shall drink ; nor yet for your body, what ye shall put 
on. Is not the life more than meat, and the body than raiment ? 
. . . But seek ye first the kingdom of God, and his righteousness ; 
and all these things shall be added unto you" (Matt. vi. 25, 33). 
When our Lord's disciples, fearing the efi"ect of his long fasts, 
" prayed him, saying. Master, eat," he answered them : " I have 
meat to eat that ye know not of. . . . My meat is to do the will 
of Him that sent me, and to finish his work" (John iv. 31, 32, 34); 
and, in the same spirit, he exhorts the multitude whom he had 
miraculously fed : " Labor not for the meat which perisheth, but 
for that meat which endureth unto everlasting life " (John vi. 27). 
It remained for him to announce himself to the people as the 
" Living Bread Avhich came down from heaven," explaining to his 
startled hearers : " The bread that I will give is my flesh, which I 
Avill give for the life of the world. . . . For my flesh is m.eat 
indeed, and my blood is drink indeed" (John vi. 51, 55). St. 
Paul, seeking to emancipate the early converts to the Christian 
faith from the " carnal ordinances " familiar to both Jew and 
Gentile, taught them that " the kingdom of God is not meat and 
drink ; but righteousness, and peace, and joy in the Holy Ghost" 
(Kom. xiv. 17) ; while for himself, in deference to the lingering 
prejudices of some feeble saint, he nobly declared : "If meat 
make my brother to ofi'end, I will eat no flesh while the world 



202 



HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 



standeth" (1 Cor. viii. 13). Finally, the apostle sums up the 
Christian's duty, in that which must of necessity be a concession 
to the lower appetites, by a comprehensive exhortation, inspired, 
as it were, by a holy impatience : " Whether therefore ye eat or 
drink, or whatsoever ye do, do all to the glory of God" (1 Cor. x, 
31). 






YIII. 

BRUSS AND ORNAMENTS. 

_^ HE dress of men and women of the Bible differed but 
ii::^ little, and chiefly in the outer garments, — the veil 
"''' being the distinguishing feature ; for the young girl, 
this represented the modesty of her virginal state, and 
for the matron, her dutiful subjection to her husband. 
The e very-day attii-e of both sexes consisted of the " inner 
garment" or tunic, an " outer garment," a girdle and sandals. 

The " coat " mentioned in the Bible generally means a kind of 
shirt, with or without sleeves, reaching* usually to the knees, but 
sometimes to the ankles, and confined at the waist, together with 
the outer garment, by a wide girdle. This " inner garment," 
" coat," or shirt, was of wool, cotton, or linen, in several degrees 
of fineness and decoration, according to the means of the wearer ; 
it was sometimes woven in one piece, and such an one is described 
as worn by our Lord : " The coat was without seam, woven from 
the top throughout " (John xix. 23). It is worthy of note that 
a person was said to be '■ naked," who had on this garment only : 
as in the example of Saul, who " lay down naked," after prophe- 
sying before Samuel (1 Sam. xix. 24) ; of St. Peter, who " girt his 
fisher's coat unto him (for he was naked), and did cast himself 
into the sea " (John xxi. 7) ; and of the youth in the Garden of 

203 



204 



HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 



Gethsemane, who "when the young men laid hold on him," as 
on one who had followed Jesus to the scene of his betrayal, fled 
from them, naked" (Mark xiv. 52); and clad only in this long 
tunic, having " laid aside his garments," our Lord washed the 
disciples' feet (John xiii. 4). 

The upper garment, or cloak, was nothing so elaborate as its 
name implies, but simply a square or long strip of cloth to wrap 
about the body. When very full, and girded at the waist, the 
long ends formed a sort of skirt or apron, and were so used : the 
•• veil " that Ruth held for the " six measures of barley " Avas 
doubtless this skirt of her outer garment (Ruth iii. 15). The 
loose, baggy folds at the waist, above 
the girdle, formed an ample pocket, 
in which were carried weapons, 
money, or other articles portable on 
the person. Of this " pocket," our 
Lord said, " Good measure, pressed 
down and shaken together, and run- 
ning over, shall men give into your 
bosoms ; " and these same warm^ 
woolly folds are to be remembered 
in connection with the tender prom- 
ise that the Good Shepherd " shall 
gather the lambs with his arm, and 
carry them in his bosom." 

This upper robe was peculiarly 
susceptible of decoration : those worn 
by the wealthy were often brilliant 
in color, as well as of great value 
and beauty. 

Allusion is made to this upper 
robe in the Mosaic law, which compelled the Hebrews to " make 
them fringes in the borders of their garments throughout their 
generations, and that they put upon the fringe of the borders a 
ribbon of blue " (Num. xv. 38, 39). The ostentatious " enlarge- 
ment" of these borders by the self-righteous Pharisee Avas the 




THE FBINGEI) GARMENT. 



DRESS AND ORNAMENTS. 



205 



subject of severe rebuke from our Lord, as a " work " done 
" to be seen of men." The superstition of later times invested 
this border or fringe with 
peculiar virtue : it was used 
to cover the head in prayer, 
and it was in this spirit 
that the poor, diseased 
w^oman " came behind " 
Jesus, in the crowd, and 
" touched the hem of his 
garment;" while the peo- 
ple of Gennesaret " laid 
the sick in the streets," 
that " they might touch if 
it were but the border of 
his garment." 

In connection with the 
fringed garment of the 
pious Israelite, may be 
mentioned the use of the 
*' phylacteries." This sin- 
gular observance arose from 
the literal interpretation of 
certain passages of Scrip- 
ture, in Exodus and Deu- 
teronomy, which are equal- 
ly susceptible of a purely 
spiritual significance. One 
of these, in the sixth chap- 
ter of Deuteronomy, reads 
thus : " These words which 
I command thee this day, 
shall be in thine heart . . . 

and thou shalt bind them for a sign upon thine hand, and they 
shall be as frontlets between thine eyes." Whatever the original 
intention may have been, it is certam that for ages the Jews 




THE PHYLACTERY. 



206 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

fulfilled the command literally ; and in the time of our Saviour it 
was still observed after this manner, except by the Karaite Jews 
and the Samaritans. The phylacteries were of two sorts, as the 
text quoted above implies, — one for the head, the other for the 
arm. That for the head consisted of four strips of parchment, 
on which were written in Plebrew these four passages of Scrip- 
ture: Exod. xiii. 1-10, Exod. xiii. 11-16, Deut. vi. 4-9, and 
Deut. xi. 13-21. These were enclosed in a small square case 
of parchment or black calfskin having four cells .: it was fastened 
on the forehead, between the eyes, by leather straps. The 
phylactery for the arm was a similar case, containing the same 
texts written on one strip of parchment ; this was fastened to 
the inside of the left arm, so that the law might be near the 
heart : the straps were wound in a peculiar manner, seven 
times around the arm and three times about the fingers, the 
ends hanging loose from the middle finger : " Bind them upon 
thy fingers, write them upon the table of thine heart" (Prov. 
vii. 3). Phylacteries were not worn by women ; and the men 
displayed them only during prayers, except the Pharisees, who 
never laid them aside. It will be remembered that our Lord 
did not condemn the wearing of phylacteries, but only the 
practice of making them " broad," in a spirit of ostentatious 
hypocrisy (Matt, xxiii. 5). It is not unlikely that they came to 
be worn as amulets, and that certain occult influences Avere 
attributed to their use. 

That the art of dyeing, as well as of weaving, was known to 
the early Hebrews, even before they occupied the cities of their 
conquered foes, there is abundant proof. Beside Joseph's '• coat 
of many colors," — which, in the light of the latest exposition, may 
be rejected as an example in point, — there was the " blue, and 
purple, and scarlet," and " rams' skins dyed red," employed in the 
construction of the tabernacle (Exod. xxv. 4, 5) ; there Avas the 
scarlet thread, bound on the hand of one of the twin-sons of 
Tamar, as well as that which was hung from the AvindoAV of 
Kahab's house in Jericho; and the "white, green, and blue hang- 
ings " that decorated " Shushan the palace," at the superb feast 
given by Ahasuerus to his nobles (Esth. i. 6). 



DRESS AND ORNAMENTS. 207 

The ancient Egyptians were well acquainted with the art of 
dyeing : but the Phoenicians excelled all other peoples of their 
time in the brilliancy and permanency of then- dyes ; the famous 
Tyrian purple, for instance, obtained from certain shell-fish, was 
for ages the imperial color, and is mentioned by all Avriters of 
ancient history or classics. 

The " soft raiment " worn " in king's houses " was the costly 
result of these ancient arts of the weaver and the dyer, and is 
often minutely described in the Bible, as at the court of Ahasue- 
rus : " Mordecai went out from the presence of the king in royal 
apparel of blue and white, and with a great crown of gold, and 
with a garment of fine linen and purple" (Esth. viii. 15) ; and in 
the Apocrypha, where that monarch himself is described: "Who 
sat upon his royal throne, and was clothed with all his robes 
of majesty, all glittering with gold and precious stones " (Esth. 
XV. 6). 

Ezekiel's impassioned allegory represents images of the nobles 
of Assyria sculptured "upon the wall," and " portrayed with ver- 
milion ; " as " clothed in blue," " clothed most gorgeously," and 
" exceeding in dyed attire upon their heads "(Ezek. xxiii. 12, 15); 
and the Assyrian marbles preserved to us attest the truth of his 
description. They reproduce the famous fringed garments of the 
Assyrians, ample and flowing, but differing in form from those 
of the Egyptians or the HebroAvs. They consisted of tunics 
varying m length, of mantles, long-fringed scarfs, and embroidered 
girdles : the wide borders of these costly robes were ornamented 
with figures of men, animals, flowers, and foliage. Ezekiel, in his 
bitter lamentation for Tyre, thus apostrophizes that luxurious but 
guilty city: " Blue and purple from the isles of Elishah was that 
which covered thee." Merchants " occupied in thy fairs with 
emeralds, purple, and fine linen, ... in blue clothes and broidered 
work, and in chests of rich apparel " (Ezek. xxvii. 7, 16, 24). 
So, the rich man in the parable is described as " clothed in purple 
and fine linen ; " of the " vu-tuous woman," it is recorded that 
"her clothing is silk and purple," while " all her household are 
clothed witb scarlet;" David, lamenting over the dead king, calls 



208 



HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 



upon the " daughters of Israel " to " weep over Saul, who clothed 
you in scarlet, with other delights ; who put on ornaments of gold 
upon your apparel " (2 Sam. i. 24). And it will be remembered 
that Lydia, the first-fruits of St. Paul's ministry in Europe, was a 
" seller of purple," of the city of Thyatira. 

Outer garments of fur or skin were worn in winter, some of 
them sufficiently rich and costly to be included in the royal apparel. 
The common skins of domestic animals, or a coarse cloth woven 
of goats' hair, were used by the poorer classes : the " mantle of 
Elijah, with which he " smote the waters," the " rough garment 
to deceive," the "sheep's clothing" of the false prophets, and 
John the Baptist's " raiment of camel's hau'," are examples of 
these rude but warm and ample cloaks. St. Paul, in his Epistle 
to the Hebrews, writes of those " of whom the world was not 
worthy," that "they wandered about in 
sheep-skins and goat-skins : being des- 
titute, afflicted, tormented " (Heb. xi. 37); 
and so, too, in " coats of skins," our 
father Adam, and the " mother of all 
living," went forth, out of the home 
which had witnessed their innocent hap- 
piness and their fall (Gen. iii. 21). 

This coarse cloak Avas the poor man's 
bed-covering ; hence the humane pro- 
vision of the law for his necessity to the 
usurer ; "If thou at all take thy neigh- 
bor's raiment to pledge, thou shalt de- 
liver it unto him by that the sun goeth 
down : for that is his covering only, it is 
his raiment for his skin : wherein shall he 
sleep?" (Exod. xxii. 26, 27.) And, 
again: "Thou shalt deliver him the pledge again when the sun 
goeth down, that he may sleep in his own raiment, and bless 
thee" (Dent. xxiv. 13). 

The girdle was a most important article of Eastern costume, 
and indisjDensable to comfort and convenience ; since without it 




drp:ss and ornaments. 209 

the long flowing outer garments A'^'ould have effectually impeded 
the wearer when m alking or at work. It was a wide belt or band, 
with a clasp, to be tightened or loosened at pleasure, and was 
made of cloth, leather, or linen, and often richly adorned with 
metals, jewels, and embroidery. This article, in a woman's cos- 
tume, was known as a "stomacher;" and, where the means of the 
wearer permitted, it was very ornamental and expensive, being 
often made of cloth of gold, studded with precious stones. Girdles 
of this sort are still worn in the East. The " virtuous Avoman." 
praised by Solomon, is described as delivering " girdles unto the 
merchant " (Prov. xxxi. 24). Such a belt braced the whole body, 
seeming to impart strength and firmness ; hence to " gird up the 
loins," denoted a condition of readiness for active, vigilant service ; 
while to " loose the girdle," became the significant expression for 
repose and self-indulgence. The sacred writings abound in fig- 
urative allusions to this article of dress : in St. Paul's stirring 
exhortation to the Christians at Ephesus, to " stand, therefore, 
having your loins girt about with truth " (Eph. vi. 14), the allu- 
sion is to the military girdle, the indispensable adjunct to every 
warrior's outfit. Our Saviour warned his disciples to let their 
"loins be girded about" (Luke 
xii. 35) ; and when he washed 
their feet (on the night of his 
last supper), he "laid aside his 
garments, and took a towel, 
and girded himself," as a ser- 
vant. But to St. John, the 
beloved disciple, our Lord re- 
vealed himself in the glorious 
vision on Patmos, as " girt '^^ 

about the paps Avith a golden c^"^~ ' 

girdle," significant of his ever- — \^~ 

lasting priesthood (Rev. i. 13). noKN^MTHKAD-DRtb^Es. 

In the third chapter of 
Isaiah, that eloquent prophet administers a scathing rebuke to 
the " haughty daughters of Zion ; " and in an enumeration of 




210 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

the articles with which they adorned their persons, as he beheld 
them walking with " stretched-forth necks and wanton eyes," 
presents a very comprehensive inventory of the wardrobe of a 
fashionable lady of that day. 

Among these, the " changeable suits of apparel " were rich 
garments designed specially for occasions of ceremony and social 
entertainment : the same word in the Hebrew is used to describe 
the " change of raiment " with which Joshua was clothed in the 
vision disclosed to the prophet Zechariah. 

Beautiful cloths, woven or wrought with the needle in dif- 
ferent colors and with gold or silver threads, were highly prized 
for these costly garments ; and the Israelites probably learned the 
art of their manufacture from the Egyptians. Such were the rich 
spoils imagined by the " wise ladies," when comforting the anx- 
ious mother of Sisera: "a prey of divers colors, a prey of 
divers colors of needlework, of divers colors of needlework on 
both sides ; " and such the raiment of " silk and broidered work" 
mentioned by Ezekiel (xvi. 13), and the "garment of divers 
colors" that Tamar wore (2 Sam. xiii. 18). 

Babylon was so renowned for these stuffs, that she gave her 
name to the elaborate costumes composed of them; in the Book 
of Joshua (vii. 21) the miserable Achan confesses, that, tempted 
by " a goodly Babylonish garment," among other meretricious 
considerations, he had " sinned against the Lord God of Israel." 
So, in ecstatic inspiration, the " King's daughter " is depicted by 
David, not only as " all glorious within," but in " clothing of 
wrought gold," " in raiment of needlework" (Ps. xlv. 13, 1-4). 

" A¥imples " were full and flowing upper tunics of rich mate- 
rials, with decorations of jewels and embroideries ; the " mantle" 
was still another form of outer garment, a wide cloak of silk or 
woollen goods 

The " fine linen " described a woman's undergarments of 
exquisite texture and fashion ; " bonnets " and " hoods " were 
adornments for the head, with distinctions too subtle to be dis- 
covered at this late day ; only it appears that the " hood " was a 
simple handkerchief or scarf wound about the head, while the 



DRESS AND ORNAMP^NTS. 



213 



" bonnet " was a cap trimmed with silk or gauze draperies, and 
decorated with gold, silver, and jewelled ornaments, so as to 
resemble a diadem. 

So, too, there were veils, and veils ; though the one termed 



vnth a face veil, as its Hebrew 
name points to the coquettish 
flutter of a thin gauze in a 
breeze about the fair head 
which it covers but is loath 
to conceal. 

There is no description in 
the Bible of a headdress for 
men among the ancient He- 
brews, except the '■ mitre of 
fine linen and goodly bonnets 
of tine linen," constituting a 
part of the official dress of 
the high priest, worn oidy 
during the sacred service of 
the tabernacle. In the time 
of Christ, a sort of turban or 
pointed cap was worn by the 
wealthy, in large cities where 

the resident Jews adopted many of the prevailing modes of dress ; 
as we read in the Apocrypha, that the wicked high priest Jason, 
deshing to introduce " Greek fashions and increase of heathenish 
manners " among his own people m Jerusalem, " brought the 
chief young men under his subjection, and made them wear a 
hat " (2 Mace. iv. 12). In remote rural districts it is probable, 
tliat, as in primitive times, the folds of the wide outer garment 
constituted a sort of hood that could be di'awn over the head in 
bad weather. The word " hat" found in Dan. iii. 21 is literally 
rendered " upper tunic," a fold of which may have been thus 
used. It certainly was not customary to cover the head, since 
this (like uncovering the feet) was a recognized token of great 




214 



HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 




affliction. When Haman was disgraced at the court of Ahasue- 
rus, he " hasted to his house mourning, and having his head 
covered" (Esth. vi. 12). Thus David and his friends covered 
their heads when they fled from Jerusalem (2 Sam. xv. 30). 
The primitive covering for the foot was of the rudest sort : it 
consisted merely of a piece of wood or skin shaped to the sole, 
and bound upon the foot with straps or strings. The Hebrew 
word translated " shoe " in most of the texts where it occurs in 

the Old Testament, signifies 
this simple sandal, which has 
descended in its original form 
to the desert Arab of to-day. 
The illustration affords us a 
correct representation of the 
sandals worn by the upper 
classes in ancient Egypt: 
turned up at the toes like 
skates, or rounded at both 
heels and toes. Boots and 
shoes have been found depicted upon the monumental re- 
mains of Thebes, but only as worn by foreigners, hence they 
are supposed to have belonged to the later era of Grecian 
supremacy. The ordinary sandal was made of several thick- 
nesses of leather stitched together : it was fastened to the foot 
by two straps, one of which passed between the great and second 
toes, while the other enclosed the heel and instep. This shoe 
was never worn in doors, but Avas slipped off with ease at the 
entrance of the house or apartment, the latchets being loosed by 
a servant specially assigned to that menial office, as well as to the 
kindred duty of washing the feet of the guest, to whom the shoe 
we have described afforded but slight protection against the dust 
of road or street. This act of hospitality was so obligatory upon 
the host, that its omission emphasizes our blessed Lord's mild 
reproach to Simon the Pharisee : "I entered into thine house, 
thou gavest me no water for my feet " (Luke vii. 44). 

In the time of Christ it is certain that there were more elabo- 



EGYPTIAN SHOES. 




THE PRODIGAL'S RETURN. 



DRESS AND ORNAMENTS. 217 

rate coverings for the feet, bearing some resemblance to our 
modern shoe : various models of the ancient shoe, as distin- 
guished from the sandal, represent them as sometimes covering 
the entire foot, sometimes leaving the toes bare. Ladies of 
fashion wore, besides sandals of delicate Avorkmanship, embroi- 
dered slippers of costly fabric, often decorated with precious 
stones and highly perfumed. A suggestive allusion in Judith's 
" song of praise " is made to these dainty adjuncts of coquetry : 
" her sandals ra\dshed his eyes " (Jud. xvi. 9). 

That shoes were regarded, even at this comparatively late date, 
as articles of luxury, may be inferred from our Lord's command 
to his disciples whom he was sending out on then- ministry, to 
" be shod with sandals." It was on a festal occasion of great 
rejoicing, Avhen the prodigal son was clad in the " best robe," 
that his father ordered shoes to be put on his feet. In one of 
the mystic allegories in the Book of Ezekiel, which includes the 
description of a most sumptuous feminine toilette, it is written : 
I " shod thee with badgers' skin ; " and in the Song of Songs, 
we find the significant apostrophe : " How beautiful are thy feet 
with shoes, O prince's daughter ! " 

To go barefoot was a token of mourning or humiliation : a 
touching example of this is the account of King David's ascent 
of Mount Olivet when he left Jerusalem, pendmg the conspiracy 
and rebellion of his son Absalom : " David went up by the ascent 
of Mount Olivet, and wept as he went up, and had his head cov- 
ered, and he went barefoot: and all the people that was with him 
covered every man his head, and they went up, weeping as they 
went up " (2 Sam. xv. 30). When Ezekiel was forbidden to 
mourn for the death of his Avife, the " desire of his eyes," he was 
commanded to put on his shoes (Ezek. xxiv. 17). And so, at the 
command of the Lord, Isaiah " walked naked and barefoot three 
years, for a sign and wonder upon Egypt, and upon Ethiopia," to 
predict the captivity of the Egyptians and Ethiopians at the hand 
of the king of Assyria (Isa. xx. 3). 

The shoe played an important part in two very ancient customs 
in Israel : the man who refused to marry his brother's widoAV Avas 



218 



HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 



required by law to submit to the indignity of having his shoe 
loosed "from oif his foot" by the humiliated woman, and his 
name was " called in Israel, the house of him that hath his shoe 
loosed " (Dent. xxv. 9) ; and, in making a bargain, we read : 
" Now this was the manner in former time in Israel concerning 

redeeming and con- 
cerning changing, for 
to confirm all things ; 
a man plucked off 
his shoe, and gave it 
to his neighbor : and 
this was a testimony 
in Israel " (Ruth iv. 
7). In this way did 
the " kinsman" trans- 
fer his right to Boaz 
to purchase the field 
of Naomi, and with 
it Ruth, the fair Moabitess, to wife. The transfer of a sandal 
seems a very appropriate representation of the transfer of landed 
property, as the sign of the owner's exclusive right to tread that 
particular soil. This custom is said still to exist in the East. 




SANDALS. 



clothing in use among the peoples of the Bible, it now remains 
to consider some of the merely ornamental accessories, as they 
increased in number, value, and artistic excellence, Avith the mul- 
tiplied luxuries of successive periods. Of the Hebrews, it is 
scarcely necessary to say, that, in respect of love of splendor and 
display in gold and jewels, they have always been conspicuous 
examples of a characteristic common to all Orientals. In the 
time of Isaiah, as we have seen, that prophet stooped from the 
highest soarings possible to the human intellect, to inveigh in 
detail against the excesses in dress indulged in by the wealthy 
women of his time ; and in the early Christian era this condition 
of things still prevailed, so that the apostles again and again 
warned the women converts to the faith against the " braided 



DRESS AND ORNAMENTS. 219 

hair," the " gold, pearls, and costly array," so prized by the 
heathen women about them. It cannot be denied, however, that 
the fashionable gentleman of the same epochs, whether Jew or 
Gentile, with his curled and perfumed locks, his bracelets, rings, 
and chains of gold, his embroidered tunics of purple or even 
Avhite, and his girdle of gorgeous beauty, constituted an equally 
" shining mark" for the rebukes of prophet and apostle. 

Necklaces of gold or silver, close-fitting about the throat, or 
hangmg far below the girdle, sometimes made of pearls or other 
precious stones strung together, were worn by both sexes : the 
gold chain, like the signet-ring, was among the ancients a mark 
of distinction, affected by persons of high rank only. Thus, at 
the elevation of Joseph : " Pharaoh took off his ring from his 
hand, and put it upon Joseph's hand, and arrayed him in vestures 
of fine linen, and put a gold chain about his neck" (Gen. xli. 42), 
the gift of the ring being an actual conferring of royal dignity 
and power. In like manner, Ahasuerus gave his ring to Haman, 
and afterward to Mordecai. Chains were also made of crescent- 
shaped gold coins, and suspended from gala headdresses, described 
as " round tires like the moon." 

The " nose-jewels," enumerated by Isaiah (iii. 21), were orna- 
ments peculiar to Oriental 
women, and are still to be 
seen in the East among the 
lower classes. They were 
rings, from one to three 

inches in diameter, made ^^^^^^^^ ^^^^ nose-jewels. 

of gold, silver, coral, moth- 
er-of-pearl, or even horn, and were left open, so that one end 
might be inserted into the pierced nostril, or into the middle 
cartilage of the nose. The other end was strung with jewels 
or beads or other pendent devices. The " golden earring of 
half a shekel weight " that Eliezer put upon the " face " of 
Rebekah, the bride elect of his master's son Isaac, was a nose- 
jewel. This singular ornament is alluded to in one of Solomon's 
caustic sayings : " As a jewel of gold in a swine's snout, so is a 




220 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

fair woman which is without discretion" (Prov. xi. 22); and in 
Ezekiel's powerful allegory: "I put a jewel on thy forehead," 
which the marginal reading translates " nose." 

But there were also earrings, in our modern interpretation of 
the word, worn in ancient Israel by both men and women. They 
were not simply articles of jeweh-y, but amulets, engraved with 
mystic figures and symbols, and distinctly associated with the 
idolatrous superstitions and practices of the heathen among whom 
the chosen people dwelt. Earrings are still worn in the East as 
charms against evil spirits, and to procure good fortune. In the 
second chapter of Hosea, the wearing of earrings is directly 
connected with the burning of incense to Baal ; and when Jacob, 
in obedience to the divine command, went to Bethel to renew his 
covenant with God, he first required his household to give up 
" all the strange gods which were in their hand, and all their ear- 
rings which were in their ears ; and Jacob hid them under the 
oak which was by Shechem " (Gen. xxxv. 4), by that act putting 
away those open expressions of idolatry. 

Bracelets, armlets, and anklets were essential to the outfit of 
an Oriental woman, of whatever rank or means. For the Avealthy 

these articles Avere made of 
the precious metals, massive 
and richly decorated ; while 
the women of the poorer class- 
es set off their shapely arms, 
often from wrist to elbow, 
with bracelets of the cheap- 
est materials, — brass, wire, 
horn, or even beads. Speci- 
mens of ancient Assyrian and 
Egyptian bracelets are to be 
EGYPTIAN JEWELRY. f^uud iu public muscums, and 

to their curious, if not always 
graceful, designs the artistic jeweller of to-day is indebted for an 
endless variety of suggestion and reproduction. 

Among the "jewels of silver and jewels of gold" presented 




DRESS ATs^D ORNAMENTS. 



221 




EGYl-UAN- BRACELET. 



by Abraham's servant to Rebekah were " tAvo bracelets for her 
hands, often shekels weight of gold" (Gen. xxiv. 22). Bracelets 
were also worn by men. Monarchs wore them above the elbow, 
and they constituted a part of their royal insignia. Thus the 
young Amalekite who slew 
King Saul brought to David 
" the crown that Avas upon his 
head, and the bracelet that 
Avas on his arm " (2 Sam. i. 10) ; 
and Tamar, Judah's daughter- 
in-laAV, requk-ed as a pledge 
his " signet " and his " brace- 
lets" (Gen. xxxAdii. 18). 

There seems to be no ques- 
tion that the " tinkling orna- 
ments " about the feet, and the 
" ornaments of the legs," speci- 
fied in the third chapter of Isaiah, refer to the gold and silver 
anklets Avorn by the fashionable women of his time, and to the 
" step-chains," Avhich, joining one ankle to the other, compelled 
the "mincing" movement in Avalking alluded to in this connec- 
tion. The "tinkling" Avas produced by tiny bells or small orna- 
ments attached to the anklet, that jingled Avith every movement 
of the coquettish Avearer. When the Avife of Jeroboam Avent to 
consult the blind prophet Ahijah concerning her sick son, it is 
said that " Ahijah heard the sound of her feet as she came in at 
the door" (1 Kings xiv. 6); and it has been suggested that the 
sound Avas the jingling of her anklets. 

The " tablets," literally " houses of the soul," mentioned in 
this list (Avhich Ave have followed somcAvhat irregularly), are sup- 
posed to have been gold or silver ornaments of a certain mystic 
significance, in the form of a temple, and corresponding to those 
of similar import commonly Avorn by the Greek and Roman ladies 
of a later date. These tablets Avere suspended from the necklace 
or gu'dle. 

Another favorite and very ancient adjunct to the toilet Avas a 



222 



HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 



small metal mirror (" glasses ") with highly-polished surface, worn 
also at the girdle. In Exod. xxxviii. 8 it is recorded of the 
furnishing of the sanctuary, that Moses made the laver of brass, 
and the foot of it of brass, of the looking-glasses of the women 
assembling, which assembled at the door of the tabernacle of the 
congregation." 

These " looking-glasses " were what we call hand-mirrors, small 
and exquisitely made, the handles especially artistic in shape and 




highly ornamented. Job eloquently likens the sky to a " molten 
looking-glass" (xxxvii. 18); and the apostles Paul and James, 
in their Epistles to the early Christian Church, make use of this 
familiar article to illustrate their pious exhortations (2 Cor. iii. 
18 ; Jas. i. 23). Among other expensive trifles were the " crisp- 
ing-pins " mentioned by Isaiah, which by our modern light we are 




DRESS AND ORNAMENTS. 223 

appear to have been long bags or purses of highly ornamental 
needlework, or even of gold links, worn by women, suspended 
from the girdle or neck-chain. The same word, translated 
" bags," will be found in 2 Kings v. 23. " Cauls " and " head- 
bands " were nets or fillets to cover the hair : they were strung 
with gold ornaments or small coins, in patterns more or less intri- 
cate. Gold cords Avere also worn around the head, from which a 
fringe of precious stones delicately set depended upon the brow 
and face. This latter ornament is indicated in Solomon's Song : 
" Thy cheeks are comely with rows of jewels, thy neck with 
chains of gold" (i. 10). 



;ROM the second chapter of Genesis, where we learn of 
the land of Havilah," rich in gold and the " onyx-stone," 
t^^^^ to the closing scenes of Eevelation, made luminous with 
the vision of the heavenly Jerusalem, the sacred volume is full of 
allusions to the precious metals and the precious stones ; but, 
though described by their names, it is by no means easy to identify 
the latter with those of our own time. Besides those mentioned 
separately, there are three noticeable enumerations of precious 
stones in the Bible. The first comprises the twelve jewels (four 
rows of three stones each) that composed the " breastplate of judg- 
ment " worn by the high priest as he ministered before the Lord. 
Their names are given as " sardius, topaz, carbuncle, emerald, 
sapphire, diamond, ligure, agate, amethyst, beryl, onyx, and jas- 
per." On each of these was the name of one of the twelve tribes 
of Israel, "like the engravings of a signet" (Exod. xxviii. 11). 

The second of these enumerations describes the crown jewels 
of the king of Tyre, consisting of nine precious stones, — the 
" sardius, topaz, diamond, beryl, onyx, jasper, sapphire, emerald, 
and carbuncle (Ezek. xxviii. 13). In the Apocalypse of " the 
new Jerusalem, coming down from God out of heaven, prepared 
as a bride adorned for her husband," there are twelve stones (" all 
manner of precious stones ") enumerated, besides the twelve pearls 
of the twelve gates, — "jasper, sapphire, chalcedony, emerald, 



224 



HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 



sardonyx, sardius, chrysolite, beryl, topaz, chrysoprasus, jacinth, 

and amethyst" (E.ev. xxi. 19, 20). 

Though these twelve stones bear dif- 
ferent names from those on the high 
priest's breastplate (being translated from 
the Greek instead of the Hebrew), they 
represent, with mystical significance, the 
same jewels, the order in which they are 
named being the only change. It is in- 
teresting to examine the results of sci- 
entific research in the difficult matter of 
identifying some of these precious stones 
with those with which we are familiar. 
The sardius or sard, we are told, is an 
agate: its original Hebrew name is " red," 
and the Talmud says that "the color of 
this stone represented the blushes of 
Reuben, because of shame for his in- 
iquity." The topaz is the same yellow 
or greenish-yellow gem that we know as 
a favorite with our grandmothers, but no 
longer in fashion : the ancients ascribed 
certain pacifying and salutary attributes 
to this stone. The carbuncle of the Bible 
is identical Avith our garnet, while the 
emerald is supposed to be the modern 
carbuncle. The sapphire is identified, 
almost beyond a doubt, with our precious 
stone of the same name. - It is a Jewish 
tradition that the tables of the Ten Com- 
mandments were of sapphire : hence we 
are not surprised to learn that it was 
supposed " to invigorate both body and 
soul, to prevent evil thoughts, and to be 

so potent an enemy to poison, that, placed in a glass with a 

spider or venomous reptile, it would kill it." It was deemed a 




DRESS AND ORNAMENTS. 225 

specific against fevers, and was worn by the priests as an emblem 
of chastity. 

Job says of the earth : " The stones of it are the place of 
sapphires ; " and of wisdom, that " it cannot be valued with the 
gold of Ophir, with the precious onyx, or the sapphire " (Job 
xxxviii. 6, 16). In the vision of the glory of God, the prophet 
describes " the likeness of a throne, as the appearance of a sap- 
phire stone " (Ezek. i. 26) ; and when Moses was called up into the 
mountain with " Aaron, Nadab, and Abihu, and seventy of the 
elders of Israel, they saw the God of Israel : and there was under 
his feet as it were a paved work of a sapphire stone " (E.xod. 
xxiv. 10). 

The sixth stone in the high priest's breastplate is translated 
" diamond," but it is by no means probable that the ancient 
Hebrews were possessed of this most precious stone. Jeremiah 
Avrites : " The sin of Judah is written with a pen of iron, and 
with the point of a diamond" (xvii. 1); but he makes use of 
another Hebrew w^ord, indicating a stone of great hardness. 

The mystic Spouse sings of her Beloved : " His hands are as 
gold rings set with the beryl : his belly is as bright ivory overlaid 
with sapphires " (S. of Sol., v. 2). Job and Ezekiel both tell of 
coral, but it cannot be identified with the dainty article so 
admired now. The pearl is seldom mentioned in the Old Tes- 
tament, but frequently named in the New, especially in connec- 
tion with solemn lessons of Christian faith, from the lips of Him 
who " spake as never man spake ; " " The kingdom of heaven is 
like unto a merchantman seeking goodly pearls : who, when he 
had found one pearl of great price, went and sold all that he had, 
and bought it" (Matt. xiii. 45). "Pearls" are specially men- 
tioned by the Apostle Paul in his admonition to the women of the 
early Church, against the extravagant modes of the time ; and 
the woman shown to St. John in vision was " decked Avith gold 
and precious stones and pearls" (Rev. xvii. 4). This chaste and 
exquisite jewel was held in great esteem by the ancient Egyp- 
tians, Babylonians, and Romans : it was considered next in value 
to the' diamond, and fabulous prices were paid for single speci- 
mens of exceptional size and beauty. 



226 



HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 



The arts of polishing, cutting, and mounting precious stones 
Avere well understood at a very early period in the history of 
Oriental nations, as Avell as the less reputable art of imitating the 
true gems : it is almost amusing to read of ancient Thebes, that 
in the manufacture of emeralds and amethysts she excelled the 
cunning Avorkmen of modern Paris. This branch of industry Avas 
probably stimulated by the demand for fictitious gems in the 
adornment of heathen temples and tombs, though these decora- 
tions Avere not confined to imitated jewels. 





^^^==" 



IHt PiAllL OF TIIL LAte 1 , ' — DAilAbOUS. 



IX. 



THE TOILET AND THE BATH. 




_^ HE care of the hair and beard was of sufficient impor- 
i^^lMfii^ tance among the Hebrews to be considered in Levitical 
enactments. AVhile the Egyptians, and other Oriental 
people among whom they dwelt, shaved their heads 
and beards, Israelites were required to cut their hair, much 
after the fashion of the present day : only the law admon- 
ished them : " Ye shall not round the corners of your heads, 
neither shalt thou mar the corners of thy beard" (Lev. xix. 27). 
The first clause of this law is generally supposed to signify a 
prohibition against shaving the hair 
off the temples, and was probably 
suggested by certain idolatrous 
practices. 

In the ordmances for the priests, 
recorded by Ezekiel, it is even more 
carefully insisted upon : " Neither 
shall they shave then- heads, nor 
suffer their locks to grow long ; 
they shall only poll their heads " 
(Ezek. xliv. 20): lest they should 
resemble the priests of heathen tem- 
ples, or, on the other hand, the Nazarites, a sect of which Sam- 
son and probably Samuel and John the Baptist, were notable 
examples. 

The beard was an object of special veneration to the Jew, who 
regarded it as a symbol of his dignity and free manhood, since 
slaves were required to shave to denote their servile condition. 




ORIENTAL BARBER. 



228 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

The beard was most scrupulously cared for, trimmed and per- 
fumed, and its luxuriant growth promoted by every known art 
of the toilet : to neglect or shave it was a sign of profound afflic- 
tion, and an insult offered to it an unpardonable offence. The 
implements used by the ancient barber were identical with those 
of our day, — the razor, scissors, basin, and mirror. A razor 
found in an ancient tomb is similar in shape to the modern 
instrument. Among the several instructions to Ezekiel from 
"the voice of One that spake," >vas one containing an allusion 
to this familiar implement, then, as now, in daily use: " Son of 
man, take thee a sharp knife, take thee a barber's razor, and 
cause it to pass upon thine head and upon thy beard " (Ezek. 
V. 1). The barbers' shops of Eome and Athens were famous 
resorts for the wits and gossips of fashionable society, as recorded 
in the annals of those luxurious cities. 

In notable contrast to the Jewish custom, the Egyptians 
shaved the whole head and beard, except in times of mourning ; 
but the men wore, in doors and out, wigs of elaborate workman- 
ship, — a fine specimen of the art being preserved in the British 
Museum. They also wore false beards, made of braided hair, 
and graduated in size and length according to the rank of the 
wearer. That Egyptian ladies wore large and expensive wigs 
as late as the Christian era, is proved by their presence in 
mummies ; and examples of the head-dresses of that time, as 
exhibited in terra-cotta models found in the ruins of Smyrna, 
show that the Grecian ladies had adopted the same fashion. 

Elaborate hair-dressing has been the common practice among 
Eastern women " from the beginning ; " and long hair, especially 
if black or very dark brown, was considered the perfection of 
this natural ornament, so that even the ascetic St. Paul could 
pause in his polemics to the early Church to declare: " If a 
woman have long hair it is a glory to her" (1 Cor. xi. 15). 
Solomon twice sings in praise of " the fairest among women : " 
"Thy hair is as a flock of goats that appear from Mount Gilead" 
(S. of Sol., iv. 1), — the black goats Avhose hair furnished the 
covering for the " tents of Kedar;" and she, in her turn, sings 



THE TOILET AND THE BATH. 



229 



of her beloved: "His locks are bushy, and black as a raven" 
(v. 11). Baldness in men or vs^omen was such a calamity, and 
even reproach, that the prophecy fulminated at the "daughters 
of Zion," that "instead of well-set hair" they should have " bald- 
ness " (Isa. iii. 24), was fraught with peculiar horror. 

Laborious weaving of the hair in multitudinous braids is an 
Oriental custom of great antiquity, as we find by the plaited hah- 
found on the heads of mummies. Even in modern times, Lady 
Wortley Montagu relates that she had counted one hundred and 




EGYPTIAN HEAD-DRESSES. 



ten braids on the head of a Turkish lady, all of her own hair ; 
and it is evident that in the days of the apostles the practice 
must have been carried to great excess to have elicited the 
particular prohibition of both St. Paul and St. Peter, in their 
epistles, against the "braided hair" and "that outward adorn- 
ing of plaiting the hair," common to the fashion of the period. 
The luxurious Greeks and Romans of both sexes were exces- 
sively fond of scented pomades and oils for the hair. Curious 
research has brought to li^ht at least ten varieties known to have 



280 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

been commonly used by Eoman barbers. In Capua, a city noted 
for the eifeminate manners of its people, there Avas a famous 
street called the " Seplasia," occupied entirely by shops for the 
sale of rare perfumes, scented powders, and unguents. 

In " artistic " hair-dressing the ancient coiffeur far excelled his 
fellow-craftsman of to-day; it was required of him, not only to 
dispose the tresses of his fair patron to the enhancement of her 
personal charms, but to crown her devoted head with reproduc- 
tions in hair of many curious devices, well calculated to inspire 
the beholder with awe, if not admiration. " Figures of coronets, 
harps, Avreaths, diadems, emblems of pu.blic temples and con- 
quered cities, were formed by the mimic skill of the ancient 
friseur" who used in these marvellous structures a mucilaginous 
preparation similar to our bandoline, together with choice oint- 
ments, combs, and hair-pins. 

Another and more natural fashion of dressing the hair, suffi- 
ciently elaborate withal, consisted of many braids hanging down 
the back, into which ribbons were introduced to increase their 
apparent length ; and coins or jewels were added to enhance 
their glossy darkness. Some writers contend that the Hebrews 
abstained from the use of hair-dyes and false hair ; others affirm, 
tliat, at least as late as the days of our Saviour, Jewish belles 
preferred a reddish auburn to the natural color of their abundant 
tresses, and that to obtain it they employed dyes, or had their 
heads sprinkled with gold-dust. 

The sacred Avritings abound in beautiful and touching expres- 
sions of reverence for gray hairs. Solomon says, " The hoary head 
is a crown of glory" (Prov. xvi. 31); and, "The beauty of old 
men is the gray head " (Prov. xx. 29). The law admonishes the 
faithful Israelite : " Thou shalt rise up before the hoary head, and 
honor the face of the old man, and fear thy God : I am the 
Lord " (Lev. xix. 32). The paternal heart of every age has 
responded to the pathetic remonstrance of the aged patriarch 
Jacob, trembling for Benjamin, the son of his beloved Rachel : 
" If mischief befall him by the Avay in the which ye go, then 
shall ye bring down my gray hairs with sorrow to the grave " 



THE TOILET AND THE BATH. 



231 



(Gen. xlii. 38). And who, in the shadow 
of declinmg years, makes not David's prayer 
his own ? " Now also, when I am old and 
grayheaded, O God, forsake me not ! " (Ps. 
Ixxi. 18.) The blossoming of the almond-tree 
constitutes a prominent feature in that inimit- 
able allegory of old age contained in the final 
chapter of Ecclesiastes ; and Hosea nicely de- 
scribes the stealthy approach of our common 
enemy in one little line: "Gray hairs are' 
here and there upon him, yet he knoweth it 
not" (Hos. vii. 9). Our Saviour forbade the 
ancient Oriental custom of swearing by the 
hair and by the beard : " Neither shalt thou 
swear by thy head, because thou canst not 
make one hair white or black " (Matt. v. 36) ; 
while he left us the gracious assurance: "The 
very hairs of your head are all numbered" 
(Matt. X. 30). The Bible student will rev- 
erentially recall the two instances in which 
white hair is described as pertaining to the 
person of the Divine Majesty as revealed to 
his servants : in the Book of Daniel (vii. 9) 
we read : "I beheld till the thrones were 
cast down, and the Ancient of days did sit, 
whose garment Avas white as snow, and the 
hair of his head like the pure wool ; " and in 
the Apocalypse of St. John " in the isle that 
is called Patmos," that beloved disciple be- 
holds one '• like unto the Son of man," whose 
'• head and hairs Avere white like wool, as 
Avhite as snow." With more of human inter- 
est we dwell upon the three notable heads of 
hair in Scripture : the seven wonderful locks 
in Avhich lay the strength of the mighty 
Samson, " a Nazarite to God from the womb 



232 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

to the day of his death " (Judg. xiii. 7) ; the hair of the Prince 
Beautiful of all Israel, Absalom, of which it is recorded, that, 
" when he polled his head (for it was at every year's end that he 
polled it ; because the hair was heavy on him, therefore he polled 
it), he weighed the hair of his head at two hundred shekels after 
the king's weight " (2 Sam. xiv. 26), and which finally procured 
his ignominious death ; and those softly flowing, long, luxuriant 
locks of Mary Magdalene, honored above all that have been a 
"glory" to women since the world began, in that they served her 
Master's use, and elicited his tender acknowledgment : " She hath 
washed my feet with her tears, and wiped them Avith the hairs 
of her head " (Luke vii. 44). 



a^RINTMENTS and perfumes are first mentioned in the 
h Bible in connection with the service of the Taber- 
'W^l/ nacle, where Moses receives the Divine command to 
"compound after the art of the apothecary" the "sweet in- 
cense " to be burned morning and evening on the altar, and 
the " holy anointing oil " for the consecration of the priests, 
and the furniture of the sacred place (Exod. xxx. 23, 34). 
Into these compositions entered the precious spices well known 
to the ancients : " pure myrrh, sweet cinnamon, cassia, sweet 
calamus, stacte, onycha, and galbanum, with pure frankin- 
cense." 

There is a Rabbinical tradition that a Levite, one of the fifteen 
prefects of the Temple, was specially assigned to the duty of 
making this precious compound, and that a laboratory was fitted 
up for him within the sacred building. Various theories have 
been advanced as to the significance of the use of incense in 
public worship : it seems most reasonable to regard it as the 
symbol of prayer, as it was ofi"ered while the assembled con- 
gregation were in the posture and act of devotion. Even to 
the angel in the Apocalypse, there was given " much incense, 
that he should off'er it with the prayers of all saints " (Rev. 
viii. 3). Dr. Wilson aptly remarks of incense as an agent in 



THE TOILET AND THE BATH. 



233 



public worship, that " this symbolical mode of supplication had 
this one advantage over spoken or written prayer, that it ap- 
pealed to those who were both blind and deaf, — a class usually 
excluded from social worship by their affliction: the hallowed 
impressions shut out by one avenue were admitted to the mind 
and heart by another." 

So holy were the pur- ^ 

poses to which the in- 
cense and the anointing 
oil Avere devoted, that 
the children of Israel 
were forbidden to make 
either of these confec- 
tions for personal use, 
under the dire penalty 
of being " cut off" from 
their people (Exod. 
XXX. 32, 37). 

This very prohibition 
goes far to prove that 
the use of perfumes in 
the toilet was already 
common, and the art 
of their compounding a 
commercial fact. The 
ancient trade of per- 
fumer, however (like 
that of the barber), was 
held in decided disre- 
pute ; so that when the 
prophet Samuel wished 

to emphasize his warning to the Jews, when they demanded a 
kmg to rule over them, he said, " He Avill take your daughters to 
be confectionaries, and to be cooks, and to be bakers" (1 Sam. 
viii. 13). 

It is necessary to note that the original signification of the 




ALTAR OF INCENSE. 



234 



homp:-life in the bible. 



term " confectioner " is simply one who compounds various in- 
gredients ; and in the text it is appHed to those who prepared 
the sweet spices so liberally used by Oriental peoples. The word 
" ointment," also, as found in the Bible, means highly-scented 
oil, extract of spices, or perfume, and is in no case susceptible 
of its modern application to healing salves or emollients. Solo- 
mon's proverb, that " ointment and perfume rejoice the heart," 
was not more true of the Orientals of his time than of those 
before and since ; the excessive use of sweet and pungent odors 
has always been common to every action of then- daily life. Not 
only were they worn on the person, in dainty boxes or vials 
of gold, silver, and alabaster ; but the rooms of their houses, 
their beds and furniture, were filled with the aromatic fumes of 
burning resins, or perfumed with spices and gums. Even in 
natural flowers, those of the strongest odor have always been pre- 
ferred in the East. This universal fondness has been accounted 
for, with some show of reason, by the necessity of neutralizing the 

offensive smells Avhich are 
engendered, especially in 
their cities, by the exces- 
sive heat, and the absence 
of all " modern improve- 
ments " of a sanitary char- 
acter. 

The personal use of fra- 




^^ 



grant oils and powders is 

frequently referred to in 

the Scriptures. Thus in 

David's " Song of loves," 

of Him who is " fairer 

than the children of men," 

ANTIQUE VASES. ^e says, " Thy God hath 

anointed thee with the oil 

of gladness above thy fellows. All thy garments smell of myrrh 

and aloes and cassia" (Ps. xlv. 7, 8). Again, in the "Song of 

songs," the Church triumphant t'ikes up the inspired strain: 



THE TOILET AND THE BATH. 235 

" Who is this that cometh out of the wilderness Kke pillars 
of smoke, perfumed with myrrh and frankincense, with all 
powders of the merchant?" "The smell of thy garments is 
like the smell of Lebanon." (S. of Sol. iii. 6, iv. 2.) 

The custom of perfuming the clothing was universal among 
Orientals; and for this purpose they employed camphor, civet, 
sandalwood, and other strong scents. The extreme antiquity of 
the practice is proved by its early mention in the Bible, in the 
pathetic scene where the aged patriarch, deceived by Jacob, 
bestows upon him the blessing : " And his father Isaac said unto 
him, Come near now, and kiss me, my son. And he came near, 
and kissed him : and he smelled the smell of his raiment, and 
blessed him, and said, See, the smell of my son is as the smell of 
a field which the Lord hath blessed" (Gen. xxvii. 26, 27). 

Anointing Avas very anciently practised by the Egyptians and 
the Hebrews, and later by the Greeks and Romans. It is proba- 
ble, that originally it was a feature of occasions of religious or 
civil solemnity only, such as the consecration of priests and the 
coronation of kings ; but in course of time it became a daily 
habit of the people, in connection with the bath and other refined 
luxuries of private life. The Bible abounds in examples of this 
custom, both in its ceremonial and its domestic aspects. Olive-oil 
was used, pure, or mixed with rare and costly spices of exquisite 
fragrance ; and when employed as a cosmetic it was applied not 
only to the head, but to the entire person. 

At the coronation of the son of David, it is written : " Zadok 
the priest took a horn of oil out of the tabernacle, and anointed 
Solomon. And they blew the trumpet; and all the people said, 
God save king Solomon" (1 Kmgs i. 39) ; and, in the case of the 
sons of Aaron, Moses was thus instructed : " Thou shalt anoint 
them, as thou didst anoint their father, that they may minister 
unto me in the priest's office : for their anointing shall surely be 
an everlastmg priesthood throughout their generations " (Exod. xl. 
15). AVhen Naomi " sought rest" for her daughter-in-law Euth, 
in the heart and home of her rich kinsman Boaz, she bade her: 
"Wash thyself therefore, and anoint thee, and put thy raiment 



236 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

upon thee, and get thee down to the floor " (Ruth iii. 3). Again, 
when " David perceived that the child was dead," for whose recov- 
ery he had fasted and wept before the Lord, he " arose from the 
earth, and washed, and anointed himself, and changed his apparel, 
and came into the house of the Lord, and worshipped " (2 Sam. 
xii. 20). 

It was especially the custom to anoint the head on all happy 
and festal occasions ; so that the act became symbolical of the 
luxury of joy. On the other hand, its omission was a token of 
mourning. The prophet depicts the sinful pleasures of them that 
were " at ease in Zion," " that drink wine in bowls, and anoint 
themselves with the chief ointments " (Amos vi. 6) ; and the Lord, 
recounting his mercies to backslidden Israel, says, " Then washed 
I thee with water, . . . and I anointed thee with oil" (Ezek. 
xvi. 9). 

The Psalmist likens brotherly love to the " precious ointment 
upon the head, that ran down upon the beard, even Aaron's 
beard ; that went down to the skirts of his garments " (Ps. cxxxiii. 
2) ; and in that most lovely outpouring of the devout heart in 
childlike faith and trust, the twenty-third Psalm, he exclaims, 
" Thou anointest my head with oil : my cup runneth over." 

" Words softer than oil ; " " oil to make his face to shine ; " 
" the oil of joy for mourning ; " " a kindness, an excellent oil ; " 
" the Lord will bless thy wine and thy oil ; " " the oil of glad- 
ness," — are a few of the numerous expressions in Scripture that 
denote the esteem, both literal and symbolical, in which this 
" labor of the olive " was held. The expression, " fresh oil," 
employed by the Psalmist in Ps. xcii. 10, is interpreted literally 
green oil ; that is, oil newly made, or made from unripe olives, or 
that which is pressed from the nut without the usual process of 
boiling. This " cold-drawn " oil was used for medicinal purposes, 
as being the purest, and was preferred especially for anointing 
the person ; but it was also much more expensive than the ordi- 
nary kinds. 

To omit washing and anointing the body was so conspicuous a 
sign of distress, that our Lord condemned the practice in con- 



THE TOILET AND THE BATH. 237 

nection with ostentatious fasting, and enjoined precisely the 
opposite course upon his disciples : " But thou, when thou 
fastest, anoint thine head, and wash thy face ; that thou appear 
not unto men to fast, but unto thy Father which is in secret" 
(Matt. vi. 17, 18). 

The Jews adopted from the Egyptians the custom of anointing 
guests on festal occasions. Servants were appointed to the office 
of sprinkling the garments of their master's friends with rose- 
watpr or other scented essences ; while their heads, and even the 
garlands with which they were crowned, were anointed with 
choice unguents. So universal was this custom, that its omission 
could be construed only as premeditated insult. And in this 
light, new, perhaps, to some readers, let us look again at that 
most beautiful incident in the social life of our Lord, where, 
though the chief guest, at the house of a wealthy Pharisee, he 
was yet indebted to " a woman in the city " for his anointing, as 
well as for the necessary refreshment of washing his feet. " He 
said unto Simon, Seest thou this woman 1 I entered into thine 
house, thou gavest me no water for my feet : but she hath washed 
my feet with tears, and wiped them with the hairs of her head. 
Thou gavest me no kiss: but this woman, since the time I came 
in, hath not ceased to kiss my feet. My head with oil thou didst 
not anoint : but this woman hath anointed my feet with ointment." 
(Luke vii. 44-46.) 

The " alabaster box of ointment " in this record ; and the " ala- 
baster box of ointment of spikenard, very precious," mentioned 
in the Gospel of St. Mark, and of which the apostle adds, " She 
brake the box, and poured it on his head" (xiv. 3), — were the 
familiar receptacles at that time for medicines and perfumes, and 
as such are to this day. Alabaster is a kind of soft white marble, 
easily carved, and susceptible of a high polish. Specimens of 
antique vases and vials made of this stone, to contain ointments 
and cosmetics, were among the Layard discoveries at Nineveh, 
and a fine collection is preserved in the British Museum. Ala- 
baster was so called from Alabastron, an Egyptian town, near 
which it was procured. The vessels were called alahastra by the 



238 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

Greeks from this circumstance, and finally all perfume boxes, or 
vases, or vials, whether of ivory or glass, bone, shell, or eve'n gold, 
were known as alabastra. The Gospel phrase, " she brake the 
box," is interpreted to mean that (making her offering still more 
lavish) she broke the slender neck of the sealed bottle or pitcher 
that contained the ointment ; because the word signifying " oil- 
vessel " is in several Old-Testament texts translated indifferently 
" box " or " vial." The two following will serve as an illustration : 
Avhen Elisha wished to anoint Jehu king over Israel, he sent one 
of the " children of the prophets," with a " box " of oil in his 
hand for the purpose; and Samuel, in a like case, took a "vial" 
of oil, and poured it upon the head of Saul. In these two texts 
the Hebrew word is the same, having the same derivation from 
the verb " to drop," thereby indicating a flask with a narrow, 
tube-like mouth, such as have been found in Egyptian and 
Assyrian excavations. 

Oil was highly esteemed in the East as an article of the 
materia medica : certain kinds were prized as specifics in pains 
and diseases of the head, while others were carefully avoided as 
productive of delirium and insanity. The Psalmist praises, under 
the figure of the " excellent oil which shall not break " his head, 
the smiting and reproof of the righteous, alluding to the ancient 
custom of administering domestic correction upon the crown of 
the head. It is curious, in this connection, to learn that the 
Hindoos have traditional expressions almost identical with the 
text referred to : " Let a holy man smite my head ! And what 
of that ? it is an excellent oil." " My master has been beating 
my head, but it has been good oil for me." 

In the parable of the Good Samaritan, it is said, to the honor 
of his humanity, that he went to his suffering neighbor, " and 
bound up his wounds, pouring in oil and wine " (Luke x. 34), 
— a practice doubtless familiar to the " beloved physician " who 
records the story. This was a favorite treatment in ancient 
surgery, especially for Avounds resulting from violent assaults : 
wool, lint, or pounded olive was first laid upon the Avound, and 
the mixture poured into the gash, — the Avine to cleanse, and the 




iiiiiliiH 1 «« II 



THE TOILET AND THE BATH. 241 

oil to soothe and heal. Indeed, the healing properties of oil 
and ointments were so firmly believed in, that it Avas a common 
practice to anoint the sick with them. In St. Mark's Gospel 
we read that the disciples (sent forth on then* mission of mercy 
by our Lord, " two and two "), beside their preaching, and cast- 
ing-out of devils, " anointed with oil many that were sick, and 
healed them ; " showing that though their cures were miraculous, 
they preferred to make use of natural means. And St. James 
the Apostle, among his injunctions to the early Christians, lays 
stress upon this custom, which in the Roman Catholic Church 
has ever since held the place of a sacrament, under the name 
of "extreme unction:" "Is any sick among you? let him call 
for the elders of the church ; and let them pray over him, anoint- 
ing him with oil in the name of the Lord" (Jas. v. 14). 



~j^HE excessive heat of the climate, as well as certain 
"^ peculiarities of costume and custom among the Orien- 
tals, made the refreshment of frequent bathing a neces- 
sity : running water was preferred by the Hebrews for their 
personal ablutions, but in the large cities families made use of 
the pools and fountains in the courts of their own houses. As 
Avealth and the love of sensuous pleasures increased, the bathing 
custom, especially among the Greeks and Romans, became in 
the highest degree luxurious : public baths were erected at great 
cost, and Avere extensively patronized by the elegant society of 
that day, to whom they were favorite lounging-places, similar to 
the modern clubs. 

Bathing constitutes a distinctive feature of the Mosaic code, by 
which, in connection with the ceremonial of the sanctuary, it was 
elevated from a sanitarial necessity into a rite symbolical of 
inward purity, and of that " holiness without which no man can 
see the Lord." In this spuit David, overwhelmed with a sense 
of his spiritual uncleanness, cries out to God : " Wash me 
thoroughly from mine iniquity, and cleanse me from my sin ; " 
" AVash me. and I shall be whiter than snow:" "Create within 




242 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

me a clean heart " (Ps. li. 2, 7, 10). The priests who ministered 
before the Lord were required to observe very strictly these 
ordinances for personal cleanliness : when Solomon builded the 
Temple he constructed a superb copper lavatory, or " molten sea," 
for the priests, which contained from sixteen to twenty-four 
thousand gallons of water (1 Kings vii. 26; 2 Chron. iv. 2). 

We learn from the charming story of the infant Moses, that it 
was possible for a royal princess to bathe in a river, probably 
enclosed at a specified point to secure her privacy ; in the Second 
Book of Moses the historian tells us that " the daughter of 
Pharaoh came down to wash herself at the river; and her 
maidens walked along by the river's side" (Exod. ii. 5). It does 
not follow, however, that this was on an ordinary occasion ; 
for the Nile was regarded as a sacred river, and it has been cus- 
tomary in later times, for young maidens to bathe in its waters 
in the spring of the year, singing songs in honor of the rise 
and overflow at that season. 

A favorite mode of Eastern bathing Avas by having water 
poured on the body, after submitting to the usual processes of 
lathering with soap, and manipulations by the attendant. Egyp- 
tian monuments afford many examples of this sort of bathing as 
applied to men and women. Snow-water Avas supposed to pos- 
sess superior qualities for brightening and cleansing the skin, 
and for preventing perspiration by contracting the fibres. Job, 
in his despair of establishing his innocency before God, exclaims : 
" If I wash myself with snow-water, and make my hands never 
so clean," he would still be foul in His sight. Frequent washing 
of the hands was made expressly essential to comfort and 
decency by certain Oriental customs. At meals, for example, 
it was required that the hands should be scrupulously clean ; 
because the meats and fowls were "carved" only by pulling 
apart with the fingers, and, being passed from guest to guest. 
were eaten in the same primitive fashion. Thus it may be seen, 
that, under the pressure of these etiquettes, the services of the 
attendant with basin, ewer, and towel, would be required re- 
peatedly before the close of the meal. 



THE TOILET AND THE BATH. 



245 



It was characteristic of the Pharisees that they should magnify 
this every-day custom into a religious observance, and define it 
with many fantastic regulations : " For the Pharisees, and all the 
Jews, except they wash their hands oft, eat not, holding the 
tradition of the elders. And when they come from the market, 
except they wash, they eat not. And many other things there 
be, which they have received to hold, as the washing of cups, 




BY THE NILE. 



and pots, brazen vessels, and of tables " (Mark vii. 3, 4). Ex- 
tracts from the ancient Rabbinical writings discover some of 
these " traditions of the elders," against which Christ so vehe- 
mently protested, as " making the word of God of none effect : " 
•' of the quantity of water sufficient for this washing ; of the 
washing of the hands, and the plunging of them ; of the first and 
second waters ; of the manner of washing ; of the time ; of the 
order, Avhen the number of those that exceeded five, or did not 



246 



HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 




EWER AND BASIN. 



exceed ; and other such like niceties." It is added, that, not con- 
tent with the ordinary usage of washing after a meal, they did 
so before eating, for fear of being injured by Shibta, " an evil 
spirit which sits upon men's hands in the night, and, if any touch 
his food with unwashen hands, that spirit sits upon that food, 

and there is danger from it." 
The common mode of wash- 
ing the hands is exempHfied 
in the Biblical notice of the 
servant of Elijah : " Elisha 
the son of Shaphat, which 
poured water on the hands 
of Elijah." The hands are 
held over a basin or laver, 
which has a double bottom, 
the upper compartment be- 
ing full of holes, through 
which the water poured on 
the hands runs into the lower. In the centre of the basin is a 
projection contrived as a receptacle for the soap. These utensils, 
in the houses of the wealthy, were sometimes made of solid silver, 
or even gold. Various vegetable preparations were used by the 
ancients to cleanse the body. So the beautiful but maligned 
Susanna, going into her garden at noonday to bathe, said to her 
two maids : " Bring me oil and washing balls, and shut the garden 
doors, that I may wash me" (Sus. i. 17). The Lord declared to 
Jerusalem, in the days of her backsliding, " Though thou wash 
thee with nitre, and take thee much soap, yet thine iniquity is 
marked before me " ( Jer. ii. 22) ; and the last of the prophets 
says of the expected Redeemer : " But who may abide the day 
of his coming "? and who shall stand when he appeareth ? for he 
is like a refiner's fire, and like fuller's soap " (Mai. iii. 2). The 
soap referred to in these passages of Scripture was made by 
burning a variety of alkaline plants that grow in the vicinity of 
the Dead and Mediterranean seas, and mixing their ashes with 
the inferior qualities of olive-oil, or other fatty substances. 



thp: toilet and the bath. 



247 



This soft soap was used by the Jews from very early times, 
both for bathing purposes and for cleansing their clothes. " Ni- 
tre," or more properly natron, was an earthy alkaline salt that 
rose to the siu-face of the Egyptian lake Natron, where it was 
condensed into a hard substance similar to soap, and used as 
such. This natron is an impure carbonate of soda, and is found 
in parts of Egypt and Syria on the surface of the ground : it 
was extensively employed, especially by fullers, whose trade was 
a favorite one in Jewish communities. But because the fuller 




SUPPOSED SCENE OP THE TRANSFIGURATION. 



must of necessity make use of unclean materials in his calling, — 
such as animal secretions, as well as vegetable and mineral alka- 
lies, — he was compelled to set up his shop outside the walls of 
the Holy City. Even Roman fullers were required to live in the 
suburbs, or in back streets. Fuller's-earth and other strong 
detergents were placed in the water in which the soiled articles 
were to be washed ; and these, after being dried, were subjected 
to the fumes of sulphur, or a finer sort of fuller's-earth was 
rubbed into them, to intensify their whiteness. 



248 



HOME-LIFE IN THE BH^LE. 



A singular allusion is made to this familiar workman in St. 
Mark's graphic account of the transfiguration of our Saviour, in 
which he says : " His raiment became shining, exceeding white 
as snow, so as no fuller on earth can white them" (Mark ix. 3). 

On the great Day of Atonement of the Jewish ceremonial, the 
high priest laid aside his splendid robes and his jewelled breast- 
plate, and put on the white garments emblematic of purity and 
holiness ; and so St. John, rapt in apocalyptic vision, beheld 
the " great multitude, which no man could number," " clothed 
with white robes;" for they " have washed their robes, and made 
them white in the blood of the Lamb " (Eev. vii. 9, 14). 

The use of cosmetics in connection with the bath prevailed 
among the wealthy women of a very remote period. At the 
magnificent court of Ahasuerus, in the seventh year of his reign, 
the following elaborate processes of " purification " were pre- 
scribed for the maidens destined for the king's harem : being 
" gathered together unto Shushan the palace, ... to the cus- 
tody of Hegai, keeper of the 
women," they abode in the 
" women's house," and " so 
Avere the days of their puri- 
fications accomplished, to wit : 
six months Avith oil of myrrh, 
and six months Avith SAveet 
odors, and Avith other things 
for the purifying of women" 
(Esth. ii. 8, 12). The Song of 
songs is rich in figurative allu- 
sions to these " SAveet odors," 
its last rapturous note echo- 
ing from " the mountains of 
spices ; " " myrrh and frankincense, Avith all poAvders of the mer- 
chant ; " " camphire, with spikenard and saffron ; calamus and 
cinnamon, with all trees of frankincense ; myrrh and aloes, Avith 
all the chief spices; " "my hands dropped myrrh, and my fingers 
sweet-smelling myrrh ; " " his cheeks are as a bed of spices, as 




ROMAN MIRROR AND VESSELS. 



THE TOILET AND THE BATH. 249 

sweet flowers ; his lips like lilies, dropping sweet-smelling 
myrrh ; " the " mandrakes " and the " pleasant fruits." 

It is most interesting to learn, in connection with another 
couplet of this exquisite song, " My beloved is unto me as a 
cluster of camphire in the vineyards of En-gedi," that En-gedi is 
the one only place in all Palestine Avhere camphor still grows. 
This plant is better known by its Arabian name henna : it is a 
tall shrub, whose white-and-yellow flowers grow in clusters, like 
our familiar lilac. The Eastern women are still fond of Avearing 
these fragrant blossoms in their hair or their bosoms ; but it is 
as an ancient dye that the plant has come into special notice. 
The dried leaves of the henna were crushed and made into a 
paste Avith Avater, and applied to the palms of the hands, to the 
nails of fingers and toes, and to the hau-, if the discovery of gray 
threads should be unwelcome. It was used by the men to dye 
the hair and beard, and even applied sometimes to color the 
mane and tail of a favorite horse. The antiquity of this custom 
is demonstrated by its frequent mention by Avriters of a very 
early period, and even more conclusively by the fact that the 
nails of some Egyptian mummies (especially those of women) 
still retain the stain of the dye. 

Painting the eyelids and eyebrows Avith kohl Avas another East- 
ern fashion (not yet extinct) of equal popularity. The large, 
languishing black eye, shaded Avith long dark lashes, has doubt- 
less ahvays been the distinguishing feature of beauty in the dusky 
daughters of the East ; and it is not surprising that they have 
tenaciously retained a practice supposed to enhance its size and 
brightness. The black poAvder called kohl Avas made of several 
substances : stibium or antimony, Avith zinc and oil ; or burnt 
almond-shells, mixed Avith libari, a sort of frankincense, also 
burnt ; another sort Avas made of poAvder of lead ore, and was 
considered not only ornamental, but beneficial by reason of cer- 
tain medicinal properties. This kohl Avas kept in boxes or vials 
of Avood, stone, or pottery, having several compartments, and 
often highly ornamented. It Avas applied Avith a small stick 
of Avood, ivory, or silver, Avhich Avas first Avet in rose-Avater, dipped 



250 



HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE, 



into the black powder, and drawn carefully along the edges 
of the eyelids, both upper and under. In the same way the 
arch of the eyebrow was darkened and elongated. This practice 
of eye-painting must have been in great popularity as early as 
the time of Job ; for Keren-happuch, 
the name of the youngest of his 
three beautiful daughters, signifies 
" a horn for paint ; " that is, " a bot- 
tle for kohl." It was esteemed a 
great mark of beauty, that the eye- 
brows should meet over the nose in 
the form of a bow ; and it was com- 
mon to imitate nature in this respect 
by the use of the kohl ; but this had 
to be removed in seasons of mourn- 
ing, and, if the hair actually grew 
there, it must be plucked out. It 
will be remembered, however, that 
this was not permitted to the He- 
brews, who were forbidden in their 
law to " make any baldness between 
their eyes for the dead " (Deut. xiv. 
1). It is written, " When Jehu was 
come to Jezreel, Jezebel heard of it ; 
and she painted her face, and tired 
her head, and looked out at a win- 
dow " (2 Kings ix. 30). The phrase 
" painted her face " is literally " put 
her eyes in paint," an evident allu- 
sion to the use of the kohl. In Jer. 
iv. 30, " Though thou rentest thy 
face with painting," again the marginal reading substitutes 
" eyes " for " face." In Ezek. xxiii. 40 is still another allu- 
sion : "So they came, for whom thou didst wash thyself, 
paintedst thine eyes, and deckedst thyself with ornaments." 
And the wise man pays an unconscious tribute to this alluring 




THE TOILET AND THE BATH. 



251 



decoration, Avhen he warns his son against a meretricious beauty 
with the words : " Neither let her take thee with her eyehds " 
(Prov. vi. 25). 

In the toilet of that rare Jewish beauty of the apocryphal 
story, Judith, the widow of Manasses, — which was made in the 
highest interests of religion and patriotism, as expounded in the 
day of that historical fiction, — there is so full a recapitulation 
of the several customs in connection with women's dress, that it 
seems appropriate to introduce the description in closing the 
subject. The narrative reads thus : " She put off the garments 
of her widowhood, and washed her body all over with water, and 
anointed herself with precious ointment, and braided the hair 
of her head and put a tire upon it, and put on her garments 
of gladness. . . . She took sandals upon her feet, and put about 
her her bracelets and her chains and her rings and her ear- 
rings and all her ornaments, and decked herself bravely" (Jud. 
X. 3, 4). 





X. 

DOMESTIC AND PUBLIC WORSHIP. 

F a people like the Hebrews, who imbibed the spirit 
of religion with their mothers' milk, whose every act 
of domestic or social life was hedged about with holy 
law, we are prepared to learn that they laid great stress 
on the ceremonial observances connected with devotion, 
both private and public. And this is not less to be noted of 
the Gentile Orientals than of the Jews, with whom was deposited 
the inestimable treasure of a true faith. 

It was a saying of a Rabbi in the time of our Lord, that " he 
who prays in his house surrounds and fortifies it with a wall of 
iron ; " and long before his day of advanced " traditionalism," the 
saints and sinners of successive ages had afforded him precedents 
upon which to erect his theory. It Avas an ancient custom 
of the Jews to pray three times a day, — at nine, twelve, and 
three o'clock in the afternoon ; or, as the pious David writes, 
" Evening, and morning, and at noon, will I pray, and cry aloud : 
and he shall hear my voice " (Ps. Iv. 17). To these were added 
less formal acts of devotion at the beginning and end of the 
night, and the thanksgiving at meals. For those who were 
called to a more strictly devout order of life, there were "night 
watches " unto prayer, to which David alludes in Ps. cxix. : " At 
midnight I will rise to give thanks unto thee, because of thy 
righteous judgments " (62); and again: "Mine eyes prevent the 
night watches" (148). The reader will remember that it was 
the custom in every Jewish house to have a light brightly burn- 
ing all through the night ; but for one of these pious watchers 
" who sleeps in a dark house, and does not know the time for 



DOMESTIC AND PUBLIC WORSHIP. 



253 



^^^^^ 



saying the ' shema ' (the Hebrew creeds), when it is," a Eabbi pro- 
vides for the situation by deciding 
that " Avhen the wife speaks to her 
husband, and the babe sucks its 
mother " (indicating the " third 
watcli," from midnight to three hours 
before sunrise), " he may rise up and 
say the prayer." 

The superior efficacy of morning 
prayer, and its special obligation, 
were insisted upon by all Oriental 
teaching. The Talmud, as an expo- 
sition of the popular sentiment on 
this subject, declares : " Every one 
that eateth and drinketh, and after 
that says his prayers, of him the 
Scripture saith, ' But Me hast thou 
cast behind thy back ; ' " and again, 
" It is forbidden to a man to go 
about his business before praying." 

The spirit of the Koran is the 
same : " The prayer of daybreak is 
borne witness to ; " and Haiiz, the 
Persian lyric poet, addressing the 
mystic Beloved, says : " In the morn- 
ing hours be on thy guard (lest thou 
be compelled to hear and answer), 
if this poor stranger make his com- 
plamt." So the sweet singer of 
Israel takes up the strain : " My 
voice shalt thou hear in the morn- 
ing, O Lord ; in the morning will I 
direct my prayer unto thee, and will 
look up " (Ps. V. 3) ; and " Unto thee 
have I cried, O Lord ; and in the 
morning shall my prayer prevent thee" (Ixxxviii. 13). 




254 



HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 



The custom of going even to public morning prayer, fasting, is 
established by the answer of St. Peter to those who accused the 
newly inspired disciples, assembled for worship, of being " full of 
new wine : " " These are not drunken, as ye suppose, seeing it is 
but the third hour of the day " (Acts ii. 15), — the third hour 
corresponding with our nine o'clock of the morning. 

The posture in devotional exercises was not arbitrarily pre- 




MOONLIGHT ON THE NILE. 



scribed : standing, kneeling, the head bowed or raised, and the 
hands uplifted, were all accepted attitudes of reverence. Thus, 
at the dedication of the temple, Solomon " kneeled down upon 
his knees before all the congregation of Israel, and spread forth 
his hands toward heaven" (2 Chron. vi. 13); and again, "Solo- 
mon stood before the altar of the Lord in the presence of all the 
congregation of Israel, and spread forth his hands toward heaven " 



DOMESTIC AND PUBLIC WORSHIP 255 

(1 Kings viii. 22). So, in defiance of the blasphemous proclama- 
tion of Darius, it is Avritten of Daniel : " His windoAvs bemg open 
in his chamber toward Jerusalem, he kneeled upon his knees 
three times a day, and prayed, and gave thanks before his God " 
(Dan. vi. 10) ; and Ezra records of his mmistry : " I fell upon my 
knees, and spread out my hands unto the Lord my God ; " and at 
the conclusion of his prayer, he is described as " weeping, and 
casting himself down before the house of God." 

In the New Testament all these attitudes of devotion are 
mentioned : our Lord, teaching his disciples how to pray, said, 
" AVhen ye stand praymg " (Mark xi. 25) ; of the two men in the 
parable, who " went up to the temple to pray," he said, " The 
Pharisee stood, and prayed ; " and " the publican, standing afar 
off," prayed also. St. Paul writes to Timothy : " I will therefore 
that men pray everyAvhere, lifting up holy hands, without wrath 
and doubting" (1 Tim. ii. 8) ; and to the saints at Ephesus : " For 
this cause I bow my knees unto the Father of our Lord Jesus 
Christ" (Eph. iii. 14) ; while of Him who " ever liveth to make 
intercession for us," the Evangelists record that, on one solemn 
occasion of mediatorial supplication, he condescended to the most 
abject expressions of human guilt and suifering : it was in the 
garden, '• a place called Gethsemane," that " he went a little 
farther, and fell on his face, and prayed " (Matt. xxvi. 39) ; or, 
after St. Luke : " He was withdrawn from them about a stone's 
cast, and kneeled doAvn, and prayed " (xxii. 41) ; while in con- 
nection Avith the sublime " sacerdotal prayer," uttered just before 
he entered upon the awful scenes of his passion, there is no allu- 
sion to any change of posture, only : " These words spake Jesus, 
and lifted up his eyes to heaven " (John xvii. 1). 

When our Lord gave us the matchless prayer Avhich is called 
by his name, his preliminary instruction was as to the place in 
wliich it was to be offered : " Enter into thy closet, and, when 
thou hast shut thy door, pray to thy Father " (Matt. vi. 6). The 
instinctive requirement for all true prayer is privacy, except, 
of course, as to the solemn assembly for the public worship of 
the Most High. Hence we find the saints of the Bible praying 



256 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

in the " secret places " of their homes, — the Httle " chamber over 
the gate," or the " imier chamber," or the housetop : as St. Peter, 
lodging " with one Simon, a tanner," at Joppa, " Avent up upon 
the housetop to pray about the sixth hour " (Acts x. 9). Christ's 
prohibition against the " vain repetitions " of the heathen, and the 
'•long prayers" of the scribes and Pharisees, was intended to 
rebuke the false teachings and practices of that time. " Long 
prayers make a long life," was one of the Rabbinical sayings ; 




N THE GARDEN. 



" Much prayer is sure to be heard," was another ; while the 
posture prescribed for a Pharisee's devotion was to " bend so low 
that every vertebra in his back Avould stand out separate ; " or, at 
least, until " the skin over his heart would fall into folds." 

The Hebrew seventh day " of rest," a marked feature of Juda- 
ism, was instituted in the first home of the Bible, as it is Avritten : 
" God blessed the seventh day, and sanctified it : because that in 
it he had rested from all his Avork Avhich God created and 



DOMESTIC AND PUBLIC WORSHIP. 257 

made " (Gen. ii. 3). It is first called sabbath in connection with 
the gathering of manna in the wilderness ; on the sixth day of 
the mhacle, Moses said to the people, " To-morrow is the rest of 
the holy sabbath unto the Lord : . . . Six days ye shall gather it ; 
but on the seventh day, which is the sabbath, in it there shall be 
none" (Exod. xvi. 23, 26); and, in the twentieth chapter of the 
same book, the commandment for the strict observance of the 
day is recorded in the Mosaic Decalogue : " Remember the sab- 
bath day, to keep it holy "(8-12). "When Moses came down 
from Mount Sinai, with the two tables of testimony " in his hand, 
he again declared this word of the Lord to the people, concern- 
ing the seventh day of rest, adding the penalty of its violation : 
" Whosoever doeth work therein shall be put to death. Ye 
shall kindle no fire throughout your habitations upon the sabbath 
day" (Exod. xxxv. 2, 3). This latter prohibition related to the 
cooking of the family meals, which would have debarred the 
servants from their privilege of rest. For this reason it was 
necessary to make provision the day before, especially as even 
the straitest sects of the Jews were agreed in the custom of hon- 
oring the sabbath with fare much choicer than the ordinary daily 
diet. Hence Friday was termed the day of preparation, or sim- 
ply the preparation : St. Mark and St. Luke speak of Good Fri- 
day, the day of the crucifixion, as " the preparation, that is, the 
day before the sabbath " (Mark xv. 42) : " that day was the prep- 
aration, and the sabbath drew on " (Luke xxiii. 54). St. John 
calls it " the preparation of the passover," because it was also 
the paschal Friday. In Jerusalem the sabbath was ushered in 
by six blasts by the silver trumpets so freely employed in the 
temple ritual: three to interdict the people from work, and three 
to set apart the day as one of holy rest ; in other towns, from the 
roof of the synagogue. There were two additional ofi"erings in 
honor of this day, and more if it should chance to be a new 
moon or any festival. The making and baking of the shew- 
bread, though involving in its composition three ofi"ences against 
the law, was done on the sabbath day, — a fact of which the 
Pharisees were reminded by " One greater than the temple : " 



258 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

" Have ye not read in the law, how that on the sabbath days the 
priests in the temple profane the sabbath, and are blameless ? " 
(Matt. xii. 5.) At home it was in early times a family festival 
of innocent joy, and rest from the daily toil of the week. While 
the father was in the temple or synagogue on sabbath eve, the 
mother and her maidens were busy decorating the best rooms, 
spreading the table with the choicest fare they could afford, and 
lighting the sabbath lamp, to greet him on his 
return, as at the threshold he bestowed upon each 
child the blessing of Israel. Friendly intercourse 
among neighbors and kinfolk was the order of the 
day, while the poor and afflicted were comforted 
with some act of delicate sympathy. 

All this sweet spirit of keeping holy the seventh 
day was turned at a later epoch into the cruel bur- 
den of the law, of which St. Paul said well, " the 
letter killeth," and against which, both by precept 
and practice, the "Lord of the sabbath day" so 
uncompromisingly protested. The scribes and 
Pharisees had so completely lost sight of the fun- 
damental truth that " the sabbath was made for 
man," that a man of their day might well have 
bewailed the fact that he was " made for the sab- 
bath." Except that we are taught by all record 
and experience that there are no limitations to the 
excesses of a perverted conscientiousness, Ave could 
not credit the absurdities which finally came to be 
considered essential to the pious observance of this 
holy seventh day. Let us look at a few of the Rabbimcal rules 
on this subject : "To preserve life on the sabbath is to violate it, 
and to kill a flea is as bad as to kill a camel. A woman must not 
go out with her ribbons about her, unless they are part of her 
dress ; a false tooth must not be worn ; no one was to write two 
letters of the alphabet ; the sick must not send for a physician ; 
a tailor must not carry a needle out on Friday night, lest he should 
forget it, and so break the sabbath by carrying it about on that 



DOMESTIC AND PUBLIC WORSHIP. 259 

day." A sect of extremists on this question carried their scruples 
so far as to refuse to save a drowning woman on the sabbath, 
because they must not touch a female ; while, even where a child 
was in similar peril, they must put off the phylacteries before 
lending a hand to its rescue. A Rabbi of this sect of " pietists " 
refused to rebuild his demolished house, because he had thought 
about it on the sabbath : another saved himself from a violent 
death as an accused murderer, by disclosing the name of the 
criminal ; but he wrote that name on a sabbath day, and he 
passed the remainder of his life in severe penance. 

Bearing in mind this state of things, it is easier to comprehend 
the bitter animosity with which the merciful ministrations of our 
Saviour were received, on that day wherein it was not lawful for 
a Pharisee even to "do well." After the miraculous healing of 
" the man which had the withered hand," in the synagogue on 
the sabbath-day, we are told that the people " were filled with 
madness, and communed one with another Avhat they might do 
to Jesus" (Luke vi. 11). St. Mark writes that " the Pharisees 
went forth, and straightway took counsel with the Herodians 
agamst him, how they might destroy him " (iii. 6), On a similar 
occasion, when the Lord made straight the woman " which had 
a spirit of infirmity eighteen years, and was bowed together, and 
could in no wise lift up herself," " the ruler of the synagogue 
answered with indignation, because that Jesus had healed on the 
sabbath-day" (Luke xiii. 14). 

A very remarkable element in the household worship of the 
early Hebrews was the teraphim, or images, that seem to have 
been identical with the lares and penates of the Romans. It is 
supposed that they Avere introduced to the Jews by the family of 
Laban ; and we know that when Jacob fled secretly from his 
father-in-law, his wife Rachel stole the " images " (teraphim) that 
belonged to her father, and " put them in the camel's furniture, 
and sat upon them " (Gen. xxxi. 34). These family gods were 
probably rude representations of the human form, more or less 
decorated: they must have been of various sizes, since Laban's 
images were small enough to be concealed under the camel's 



260 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

saddle, while that m David's house was large enough to serve his 
wife Michal in her clever deception (1 Sam. xix. 13, 16). Al- 
though familiarly mentioned in the historical books of the Bible, 
there is no conclusive evidence that they were worshipped as 
idols, but rather consulted as oracles : the image wore on its 
breast a casket containing lots that determined the consultation, 
and a sort of mask (whence its name, signifying " a nodding 
countenance or living mask ") from which the priest deduced his 
mystic conclusions. The most graphic account of these objects 
of superstitious reverence (especially curious in their undoubted 
connection with the worship of the Almighty) is to be found 
in chapters xvii. and xviii. of the Book of Judges, where it is 
related of Micah, " a man of Mount Ephraim," that he had these 
images in "an house of gods," and a Levite for his priest. The 
teraphim are classed with " the familiar spuits, and the wizards, 
. . . and all the abominations" (2 Kings xxiii. 24), that the 
zealous Josiah sought to abolish in his reign ; but among a peo- 
ple so tenacious of old domestic traditions this Avas well-nigh 
impossible, and allusion to their continued use of the oracles is 
found so late as the days of Hosea. " For the children of Israel 
shall abide many days without a king, and without a prince, and 
without a sacrifice, and without an image, and without an ephod, 
and without teraphim " (iii. 4). 

Among the Romans the lares and penates, familiar to the 
classic scholar, occupied the same position in the household : they 
were kept in the inner part of the house, and " their altar was 
the domestic hearth." These divinities were small figures in 
terra-cotta, wax, bronze, or silver. Such, too, were the miniature 
copies of the great Temple of Diana at Ephesus, and the " silver 
shrines " for that goddess, manufactured by Demetrius the silver- 
smith, and " the image that fell down from Jupiter " (Acts xix. 
24, 35) ; such the little brass, bronze, or clay figures, preserved 
in museums, of Ashtaroth, the great Venus of the Zidonians, 
the Syrians and Phoenicians, the Astarte of the Greeks and 
Romans ; as well as of the innumerable divinities of the classic 
mythology : they were worn on the person, and worshipped in 



domp:stic and public worship. 261 

the home. An act of idolatrous devotion to the goddess Astarte, 
it is supposed, in which an entire family are engaged, is thus 
described in Jeremiah : " Seest thou not what they do in the 
cities of Judah and in the streets of Jerusalem'? The children 
gather wood, and the fathers kindle the fire, and the women 
knead their dough, to make cakes to the queen of heaven." 
(vii. 17, 18.) 

Among the many methods of divination, universally practised 
by ancient Oriental nations, were those by rods and by examina- 
tion of the viscera of animals, especially the liver, and by the 
divinmg-cup. Divination by rods is said to have had its origin 
in Chaldsea, but it was widely used by the Scythians, Persians, 
Assyrians, and Arabians. It is curious to trace the final remains, 
perhaps, of this superstition, in England and our own country, 
where wells of water or petroleum are discovered by the use of 
willow rods in the hands of the " seventh son of the seventh 
son," or some one of equally occult pretension. That the 
Hebrews were involved in this foolish practice of their Gentile 
neighbors, is seen by the divine reproof at the mouth of the 
prophet: " My people ask counsel at their stocks, and their staff" 
declareth unto them" (Hos. iv. 12). Divination by inspection of 
the liver — the organ supposed by the ancients to be the seat of 
the passions — was a favorite method among the Babylonians, 
Greeks, and Romans ; but there is nothing in Scripture to prove 
that it was practised by the Jews. Two other modes are men- 
tioned in connection with this one, in a prophecy of Ezekiel 
against Jerusalem : " The king of Babylon stood at the parting 
of the way, at the head of the two ways, to use divination : he 
made his arrows bright, he consulted with images, he looked in 
the liver " (Ezek. xxi. 21). Divining-cups were commonly con- 
sulted by the Egyptians, and other Orientals : they were inscribed 
on the inside with mystic signs and characters, or v^dth emblem- 
atic figures, and when used were filled with water. Various 
devices were employed to procure an answer from this oracle : 
rays of sunlight falling into the water produced figures, each 
endowed with its peculiar significance ; melted Avax dropped into 



262 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

the water revealed the will of the gods by the shapes it assumed 
on the surface ; plates of gold and silver, or precious stones, 
appropriately engraved with mystic characters, were also used. 
That Joseph, in his character of an Egyptian functionary of high 
rank, consulted this cup, or pretended to do so, is proved by his 
order to the steward of his house on the occasion of his breth- 
ren's visit : " And put my cup, the silver cup, in the sack's mouth 
of the youngest ; " and by the message he puts in the steward's 
mouth : "Is not this it in which my lord drinketh, and whereby 
indeed he divineth" (Gen. xliv. 2, 5). 




EARTHKN DIVINTTNO. BOWL: BABYLON. 



All these practices of divination were expressly prohibited to 
the Hebrews in the words of the law, which apply Avith wonder- 
ful wisdom to our own day of so-called " sphitualism" and " new 
lights : " " When thou art come into the land which the Lord thy 
God giveth thee, thou shalt not learn to do. after the abominations 
of those nations. There shall not be found among you any one 
that maketh his son or his daughter to pass through the fire, or 
that useth divination, or an observer of times, or an enchanter, 
or a witch, or a charmer, or a consulter with familiar sphits, or a 
wizard, or a necromancer, 
abomination unto the Lord" (Deut. xviii. 9, 14). 



DOMESTIC AND PUBLIC WORSHIP. 263 

The obligation solemnly to celebrate public worship was estab- 
lished throughout the generations of the Jews by the divine 
institution of the tabernacle in an early period of their history 
as a theocracy, when the Lord said to the meek leader of the 
children of Israel, " Let them make me a sanctuary, that I may 
dwell among them " (Exod. xxv. 8). As the name implies, this 
elaborate tabernacle, erected to the glory of the Most High, was 
in the form of a tent, and constructed with special reference to 
convenient removal and reconstruction, as the encamped nation 
journeyed, or tarried by the way in the wilderness. Li the court 
of the tabernacle stood the altar of burnt-offering, and the brazen 
laver, containing water for the priests' ablutions when about to 
enter the sanctuary. The holy place of the tabernacle proper 
was furnished with the golden candlestick with its seven lamps, 
the sacred table on which were placed every sabbath the twelve 
mystic loaves, the altar of incense, the golden pot of manna, 
and the miraculous rod of Aaron. In the awful holy of holies 
stood " that one object of absolute sanctity," the Ark of the 
Covenant, whose lid of solid gold, the mercy-seat, enclosed the 
tables of the divine law, even as the Lord had commanded 
Moses : " Thou shalt put into the ark the Testimony which I 
shall give thee" (Exod. xxv. 16). In this sacred tent the pre- 
scribed offerings and the daily sacrifices were made for Israel by 
the consecrated Levites. Here the holy feasts were kept unto the 
Lord ; and in its courts the people assembled to receive the 
declarations of the Divine Will, and the manifestations of 
the Divine Presence. 

This tabernacle of the congregation fulfilled its sacred purpose 
to the families of Israel, until their happy entrance into the 
promised land of Canaan. It was then more permanently estab- 
lished, — first at Gilgal, and afterward at Shiloh, Avhere it stood 
between three and four centuries. Two other cities, Nob and 
Gibeon, enjoyed the distinction of possessing the tabernacle 
before the erection by Solomon of the great Temple at Jerusalem, 
which henceforth superseded its prototype, and was possessed of 
its priceless treasures. 



264- 



HOMK-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 



Of the sacred city tlius augustly crowned with the chosen 
habitation of Jehovah, it is no wonder that the Psalmist of Israel 
breaks forth in prophetic song, though he might never behold 
the glorious sight: "Great is the Lord, and greatly to be 
praised in the city of our God, in the mountain of his holiness. 
Beautiful for situation, the joy of the whole earth, is Mount 
Zion, on the sides of the north, the city of the great King" 
(xlviii. 1, 2); while in the later days of Rabbinical sententious- 




ness the Jewish heart as truly responded to the axiom, " God 
hath bestowed ten measures of beauty upon the world, and nine 
of these fall to the lot of Jerusalem." It was to this beloved 
city, after the building of the Temple, that every pious Israelite 
made his pilgrimages according to the Mosaic laws : " Three 
times thou shalt keep a feast unto me in the year," and " Three 
tim^s in the year all thy males shall appear before the Lord" 
(Exod. xxiii. 14, 17). Previous to that happy event the people 
had assembled in whatever city was sanctified by the presence 




THE FLIGHT INTO EGYPT. 



DOMESTIC AND PUBLIC WORSHIP. 267 

of the tabernacle ; and, though only the able-bodied men were 
under obligation to make the journey, it became customary for 
the women and children to accompany their husbands and 
fathers, and to take part in the religious solemnities. Thus 
Hannah accompanied Elkanah, her husband, when he " went' 
up out of his city yearly to worship, and to sacrifice unto the 
Lord of hosts in Shiloh" (1 Sam. i. 3). And after Hannah had 
"lent" her baby-boy Samuel to the Lord, and left him in 
Shiloh in performance of her vow, it is sweetly Avritten of the 
pious mother, that " she made him a little coat, and brought it 
to him from year to year, when she came up with her husband 
to offer the yearly sacrifice " (1 Sam. ii. 19). So, too, so long 
after, the Blessed Mary and her Son went with Joseph " to Jeru- 
salem every year at the feast of the Passover" (Luke ii. 41). 
The three great feasts commanded to be celebrated with pecu- 
liar ceremonies before the Lord were the Passover, the feast of 
harvest, or Pentecost, and the feast of Tabernacles. Each of 
these festivals was preceded by a season of preparation, lasting 
fifteen days, during which the devout worshipper must needs 
meditate on the events and the mercies about to be commemo- 
rated, and submit himself to the prescribed legal purifications. 
St. John refers to this preparation when he says, " Many went 
out of the country up to Jerusalem before the Passover, to 
purify themselves " (John xi. 55). There was also much prepara- 
tion of a material sort to be made for so vast an influx of trav- 
ellers upon the highways leading to Jerusalem, and in the city 
itself, and the many adjacent villages. Eoads, bridges, and 
public Avater-tanks were carefully inspected and repaired for the 
convenience of the multitude. The primitive modes of travel, 
as depicted in the Bible, were exceedingly slow, and devoid of 
comfort : journeys were made on foot, or on camels or asses, 
and rarely in rude carriages or chariots. Eebekah, with her 
damsels, "rode upon the camels, and followed the man," Abra- 
ham's servant, on her long journey to " the south country," where 
her expectant bridegroom dwelt (Gen. xxiv. 61). And when 
the aged patriarch set out on his gloomy errand to the land of 



268 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

Moriah, where by faith " he that had received the promises 
offered up his only-begotten son," he " rose up early in the 
morning, and saddled his ass " for his own use, while Isaac and 
the two young men-servants travelled afoot (Gen. xxii. 3). The 
luxury of a chariot was enjoyed only by the distinguished and 
opulent traveller. Pharaoh, on the occasion of the exaltation of 
the Hebrew Joseph, " made him to ride in the second chariot 
which he had" (Gen. xli. 43); and Naaman, the "mighty man 
in valor " of Syria, " came with his horses and with his chariot, 
a.nd stood at the door of the house of Elisha " (2 Kings v. 9) ; 
and so the royal treasurer of Ethiopia was returning in his 
chariot from his devotions in Jerusalem, when St. Philip was 
sent by God to teach and baptize him (Acts viii. 27). In marked 
contrast to the many ostentatious visitors that thronged her 
streets, the " daughter of Zion " beheld her King, on the occa- 
sion of his entry into Jerusalem, coming unto her " lowly, and 
riding upon an ass, and upon a colt the foal of an ass " (Zech. 
ix. 9) ; and even this humble convenience was accepted by him 
only " that it might be fulfilled which was spoken by the 
prophet " (Matt. xxi. 4). 

In the annual pilgrimages to Jerusalem it was customary for 
families, friends, and neighbors of each village or city to travel 
in company for mutual safety and comfort, and to beguile the 
tedium of the way. It would appear from a suggestion in Isaiah, 
as well as from modern usage in the East, that it was common 
with travellers to relieve the monotony of their slow march with 
vocal and instrumental music : " Ye shall have a song, as in the 
night when a holy solemnity is kept ; and gladness of heart, as 
when one goeth with a pipe to come into the mountain of the 
Lord, to the Mighty One of Israel" (xxx. 29). The mode of 
travelling to and from the sacred city in parties is exemplified in 
the Gospel account of the visit of the Holy Family when Jesus 
was twelve years old : " And when they had fulfilled the days, as 
they returned, the child Jesus tarried behind in Jerusalem ; and 
Joseph and his mother knew not of it. But they, supposing 
him to have been in the company, went a day's journey ; and 




IN THE STABLE AT BETHLEHEM. 



DOMESTIC AND PUBLIC WORSHIP. 271 

they sought him among their kinsfolk and acquaintance " (Luke 
ii. 43, 44). "A clay's journey" is a very ancient term in esti- 
mating distances, and is repeatedly employed in the Scriptures. 
It may stand for from eighteen to thirty miles, though ordinarily 
computed at twenty. A " sabbath day's journey " was about 
three-quarters of a mile, — never over two miles : so it is writ- 
ten of the apostles, that, having witnessed the ascension of our 
Lord, " Then returned they unto Jerusalem from the mount 
called Olivet, which is from Jerusalem a sabbath day's journey " 
(Acts i. 12). The public accommodations for wayfarers were the 
rudest imaginable. A simple shelter for man and beast might be 
obtained in the " inns " or temporary lodging-places provided 
by private charity or municipal enterprise ; but each family was 
compelled to provide its own provisions, cooking utensils, and 
bedding, besides fodder for the horses, camels, and asses. The 
Eastern inn, or caravansary, of the present time is made familiar 
to us by illustrated books of Oriental travel : it is probably iden- 
tically the same as those of old, and presents nothing more 
inviting than a series of stone-floored and stone-walled apart- 
ments opening upon a common quadrangular court, in which the 
animals and baggage of travellers are usually stored, and where 
a well or fountain supplies the general need. Sometimes, how- 
ever, there are stables for the domestic animals, or at least caves, 
connected with these rude resting-places ; and these have for us 
a profound interest, from the fact that approved students of the 
Gospels find in these out-houses a probable counterpart to the 
place in which Mary " brought forth her first-born son, . . . and 
laid him in a manger, because there was no room for them in 
the inn" (Luke ii. 7). Two such "inns" are mentioned in the 
story of Joseph (Gen. xlii. 17; xliii. 21), wherein his brethren 
stopped to give then- asses provender. No payment was demanded 
of the passing traveller, except in emergencies of sickness or 
other accident, when the man m charge, like the "host" of the 
parable of the Good Samaritan, would render service for a cer- 
tain price (Luke x. 35). 

Once in or near Jerusalem, whatever may have been the dis- 



272 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

couragements " because of the way," the strangers were received 
with warm-hearted hospitality into houses that were not for hire, 
but thrown open freely as to brethren. If the city proper 
proved too small for the accommodation of her vast concourse 
of guests, there was still room outside her walls for tents to 
be pitched, beside villages to supply additional lodgings. It is 
pleasant to learn that Bethany and Bethphage were especially 
noted for their prompt response to the necessities of the pilgrim 
visitors, who counted among them "devout men out of every 
nation under heaven " (Acts ii. 5). To the Hebrews hospitality 
was in all time and at all times an observance of religious obli- 
gation. The Rabbis declared that " the entertainment of stran- 
gers was as great a matter as the reception of the Shechinah ; in 
which connection we are reminded of St. Paul's admonition, " Be 
not forgetful to entertain strangers ; for thereby some have enter- 
tained angels unawares." It was a custom in Jerusalem at the 
annual feasts to hang a curtain at the doors of such houses as 
were not already full of guests, and to set a table in front of it 
to indicate that still there was room. It would be unjust to 
Oriental peoples of far lower privileges to seem to omit them 
from the general praise in this particular. Job calls his own 
righteous soul to witness, if I " have eaten my morsel myself 
alone, and the fatherless hath not eaten thereof" (xxxi. 17) ; and 
the wretched Arab of to-day refuses to sit doAvn to his meal of 
mean pottage, before he " calls out thrice with a loud voice to all 
his brethren (the sons of the faithful) to come and partake, though 
perhaps none may be within a hundred miles." 

The sacred obligation of friendship between those Orientals 
Avho have eaten bread or salt together is, perhaps, their most 
universally recognized characteristic. David denounces as an 
act of peculiar baseness the violation of hospitality : " Yea, mine 
own familiar friend, in whom I trusted, which did eat of my 
bread, hath lifted up his heel against me " (Ps. xli. 9) ; and our 
betrayed Lord, disclosing the treachery of Judas to his disciples, 
quotes this very passage as thus fulfilled by him (John xiii. 18). 
Even more pathetic are the words of Zechariah, as he saw in 



DOMESTIC AND PUBLIC WORSHIP. 273 

the spirit the kindred indignities to be heaped upon the Mes- 
siah : " And one shall say unto him, What are these wounds in 
thine hands ? Then he shall ansAver, Those with which I was 
wounded in the house of my friends " (xiii. 6), — those hands 
that had broken unto them the bread of life. 

To return to the occasion of the pilgrimages Ave have consid- 
ered: the three great feasts of the Jewish ecclesiastical year 
were the Passover, the feast of Harvest, or Pentecost, and the 
feast of Tabernacles. The exact time of their celebration was 
calculated by the division of the year into lunar months. In the 
absence of almanacs and astronomical processes, and of any 
means of rapid communication with all parts of the country, it 
is not difficult to appreciate the obstacles that must have been 
overcome to procure a simultaneous convocation of the people 
at Jerusalem. AVe read in Brown's " Antiquities of the Jews " 
a citation from INIaimonides Avhich explains the ingenious system 
of signals employed to this end : " The first appearance of the 
noAv moon was the starting-point. To ascertain this, the Sanhe- 
drim took the deposition of two impartial Avitnesses as to the 
time they had seen it. They next spread the intelligence through 
the country by means of beacons : a person Avith a bundle of 
brushAvood or straAv Avent to the top of Mount Olivet, AA^here he 
kindled his torch, and Avaved it back and forth till he Avas an- 
SAvered by similar tires from the surrounding hills. From these, 
in like manner, the intelligence Avas spread to others until the 
whole land Avas notified." 

The Passover commemorated the " passing over" of the houses 
of the Israelites, during their cruel bondage in Egypt, on that 
aAvful night AA^ien " the Lord smote all the firstborn in the land 
of Egypt, from the firstborn of Pharaoh that sat on his throne 
unto the firstborn of the captive that was in the dungeon ; and 
all the firstborn of cattle " (Exod. xii. 29), and their final deliv- 
erance from their oppressors. The Paschal Supper took place, 
according to the laAv, " in the fourteenth day of the first month 
at even " (Lev. xxiii. 5), AA'hich Avas Abib or Nisan, and cor- 
responded to our month of April. The next day Avas the begin- 




274 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

ning of the feast of unleavened bread, which lasted seven days, 
for which time all leaven was banished from every Jewish house- 
hold (Exod. xii. 19) ; but the term "Passover" was applied to the 
entire period. The observance of this feast was specially incum- 
bent upon every Hebrew family, quite apart from its celebration 

in the Temple. The 
most exact instruc- 
tions for keeping it 
were given by Moses 
in the twelfth chap- 
ter of Exodus, even 
before the miraculous 
events commemorated 
UNLEAVENED BREAD. had takcu place. in 

after-time there were 
some trifling deviations from the ancient customs ; for example, 
our Lord and his disciples reclined at the Paschal table, instead 
of standing with their loins girded, shoes on their feet, and staff 
in hand, as originally prescribed in Egypt (Exod. xii. 11). 

The ordinary usage was for the head of the family to select 
and slay a male lamb of the first year, and without blemish. It 
was roasted whole, care being taken that the body should be kept 
intact ; for, concerning the Paschal Lamb of God (of whom this 
innocent creature was a feeble prototype), the divine decree had 
gone forth : " A bone of him shall not be broken " (John xix. 
36 ; Ps. xxxiv. 20). 

The lamb was eaten by the family with a salad of bitter herbs, 
with unleavened bread, and a cup of wine and water, over which 
the father, or his representative, pronounced the benediction: 
" Blessed be He who created the fruit of the vine." Not less 
than four cups of wine were to be drunk during the feast. At 
a certain point in the supper the youngest child present was 
instructed to rise, and formally ask the meaning of so peculiar 
a meal ; to which the father responded Avith a brief and simple 
story of the whole national history of Israel, in accordance with 
the Mosaic injunction (Exod. xii. 26, 27). The child was taught 



DOMESTIC AND PUBLIC WORSHIP. 



275 



that the lamb had been slain hi commemo- 
ration of the death of the firstborn of the 
Egyptians, and of the escape of the first- 
born of Israel ; that the bitter herbs he 
had eaten with his morsel of unleavened 
bread were typical of the hard bondage 
of his own people in the land of Egypt ; 
while the peculiar bread of flour and Avater, 
hastily mixed and baked, told him of their 
hurried flight from the oppressor. At suc- 
cessive stages in the supper, parts of the 
" Hallel," or hymn of praise, were chanted : 
it began with Ps. cxiii. inclusive to the 
end of Ps. cxviii. The " hymn " referred 
to in the Gospel accounts of the Passover 
celebrated by our Lord just before he suf- 
fered — "and when they had sung a hymn, 
they went out into the Mount of Olives " 
(Mark xiv. 26) — consisted of the three last 
Psalms cited above. 

The public services of the Temple, 
proper to this season, Avere solemnly impos- 
ing. Congregations of devout worshippers 
thronged the superb courts at different 
hours of the day of preparation; some 
having assembled soon after midnight, in 
order to be present at the daily morning 
sacrifice. The daily evenmg sacrifice was 
slain half an hour after noon, to gain time 
for the offering at mtervals of the addi- 
tional Paschal sacrifices ; the people dispers- 
ing at nightfall to take part in the house- 
hold ceremonial made ready m their homes 
or their temporary lodgings. 

Thus the disciples of Jesus came to him 
on the day of unleavened bread, saying, 



fcB:^ 



276 HOME-LIP^E IN THE BIBLE. 

"Where wilt thou that we prepare for thee to eat the Pass- 
over 1 " (Matt. xxvi. 1 7) ; the Kmg of the Jews and his lowly 
followers being among the few of all the assembled thousands 
in that royal city for whom nothing had been provided. The 
reader need scarcely be reminded of that one great Paschal 
feast at Jerusalem, in which its ancient types and promises 




THE WAY OF THE CUOSS: JEUTTS 



were fulfilled " once for all ; " when " Christ, our Passover, 
was sacrificed for us" (1 Cor. v. 7); and it was not without 
solemn significance, we may believe, that the " Pure Off"ering" 
of " the Lamb slain from the foundation of the world " (Rev. 
xiii. 8) was made on the Lord's Passover at the vcrj" hour of the 
Paschal sacrifices offered in the Temple on the previous day : 



DOMESTIC AND PUBLIC WORSHIP. 277 

" About the ninth hour Jesus cried with a loud voice, saying, Eli, 
Eli, lama sabachthani ? that is to say, My God^ my God, why 
hast thou forsaken me ? . . . Jesus, when he had cried again 
with a loud voice, yielded up the ghost" (Matt, xxvii. 46, 50). 
The feast of Harvest, sometimes called the feast of Weeks, be- 
cause of its occurrence seven weeks after the Passover, and again 
known as Pentecost, from the Greek word xnemxmgfftieth, — the 
fiftieth day from the Passover, — took place after the harvest of 
breadstuffs, and before the vintage. Originally it was designed 
to give public expression of gratitude for blessings bestowed 
upon the agriicultural labors of the Jewish people. The dis- 
tinctive offering at this feast consisted of two loaves of leavened 
bread made of the finest flour of the last crop of wheat, beside 
the prescribed sin and peace offerings ; and each person was thus 
admonished in the law : " Thou shalt take of the first of all the 
fruit of the earth, which thou shalt bring of thy land that the 
Ijord thy God giveth thee, and shalt put it in a basket, and shalt 
go unto the place which the Lord thy God shall choose to place 
his name there " (Deut. xxvi. 2). 

In later times, after the destruction of Jerusalem, and the dis- 
persion of the Jews among nations where the harvest-seasons 
were widely different, the feast assumed another character, and 
was commemorated in honor of the proclamation of the law on 
Mount Sinai, which (according to tradition) took place on the 
fiftieth day after the escape from Egypt. As a Christian festival 
Pentecost is kept, seven weeks after Easter, as the hallowed 
anniversary of the outpouring of the Holy Spirit upon the early 
Church — as recorded in the Acts of the Apostles, second chapter, 
— in fulfilment of the risen Saviour's promise: "Ye shall be 
baptized Avith the Holy Ghost not many days hence " (Acts i. 5 ) ; 
and of the prophecy of Joel, as quoted by St. Peter in his address 
to the mixed assembly in Jerusalem on that day (Acts ii. 17). 

A much more important and joyful feast was that of the 
Tabernacles, or the ingathering : it took place in the seventh 
month, corresponding to our October, and lasted eight days. 
During this time the multitude left their houses, and dwelt in 



278 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

arbors or booths, according to the Mosaic law : " Ye shall take 
you on the first day the boughs of goodly trees, branches of 
palm trees, and the boughs of thick trees, and willows of the 
brook ; and ye shall rejoice before the Lord your God seven 
days. . . . Ye shall dwell in booths seven days ; all that are 
Israelites born shall dwell in booths " (Lev. xxiii. 40, 42). 

Every adult male whose health would permit was required 
to sleep and take his meals in such an arbor, in commemoration 
of the many years his people had dwelt in tents after the 
captivity in Egypt. The feast was also one of general thanks- 
giving for the ingathering of the products of the earth for the 
whole year, — the corn, summer fruits, wine, and oil. We can 
imagine very imperfectly, perhaps, the picturesque beauty of 
Jerusalem during this season of her people's rejoicing, when, as 
in Nehemiah's day, they went " forth unto the mount," and 
brought " olive branches, and pine branches, and myrtle branches, 
and palm branches, and branches of thick trees, . . . and made 
themselves booths, every one upon the roof of his house, and 
in their courts, and in the courts of the house of God, and in 
the street of the water gate, and in the street of the gate of 
Ephraim" (Neh. viii. 15, 16). An impressive ceremony, intro- 
duced at a later date into^ the celebration of this festival, was 
the drawing of water from the Pool of Siloam by the priest, in 
commemoration of the water miraculously provided for their 
fathers in the desert (Exod. xvii. 6), as a symbol of " latter 
rain," so necessary to the expectant husbandman ; and to repre- 
sent the promised outjDOuring of the Holy Spirit at the coming 
of the " Consolation of Israel." Every morning of the seven 
days at daybreak the priest carried a golden pitcher, holding- 
two or three pints, from the Temple to the pool, in the midst of 
a procession of the people and a band of musicians. Having 
filled the pitcher, he was escorted back to the Temple, where, at 
the west side of the altar, he poured the water into a silver 
basin, having perforations from which the water Avas carried off 
through an aperture in the marble pavement. This memorial 
service was hailed by the shouts and songs of the congregation. 



DOMESTIC AND PUBLIC WORSHIP. 279 

as well as with blasts from the silver trumpets so constantly used 
in the Jewish ritual. 

xinother interesting ceremonial Avas performed in the woman's 
court of the Temple at the close of the first day of the feast, 
which was a day of " holy convocation." A great golden candela- 
brum, having four branches, was erected in this court. Ladders 
were placed at each branch, which were mounted by four young 
priests, who poured oil into the large receptacles supported by 
the candelabrum. Then wicks, made of the old girdles and 
sacred vestments of the priests, were thrust into the oil-vessels ; 
and an illumination was created that was visible from all parts of 
the city. Men with torches in their hands danced and rejoiced 
before the people, singing hymns ; while the priests chanted to 
an accompaniment of the chief musicians, and other priests 
blew the silver trumpets at the gate of the Court of Israel. 

The children, when very young, were taught to join in the 
sacred songs of the Temple, and especially to take part in this 
joyful feast by waving the branches of palm and willow and 
myrtle which it was customary to carry at this season. It was 
this early training in the active worship of God that prompted 
the children in the Temple to join in the " Hosanna to the Son 
of David " on the triumphal entry of our Lord into Jerusalem. 
The priests and scribes were " sore displeased, " and said unto 
him, Hearest thou what these say ? And Jesus saith unto them, 
Yea ; have ye never read, Out of the mouth of babes and suck- 
lings thou hast perfected praise ?" (Matt. xxi. 15, 16.) 

On the first and last days certain portions of the law were 
read to the people. It was on the last day — the apostle John 
calls it "that great day of the feast" — that Jesus stood and 
cried, saying, " If any man thirst, let him come unto me and 
drink" (John vii. 37), — an allusion, it is supposed, to the cere- 
monial use of water at that feast, with which all were familiar. 
The intermediate days were passed in much innocent merry- 
making and social feasting. 

The celebration of the joyous season of harvest by a certain 
period of rest and relaxation was not peculiar to the Hebrews, 



280 home-lifp: in the bible. 

but was common to many of the primitive Gentile nations. The 
ancient Arabs observed two stated festivals in the spring and 
autumn ; the Babylonians, then- great Sakeau feast at harvesting ; 
the Romans, their bacchanalian revels. 

After the Babylonish captivity two other annual feasts were 
instituted by the Sanhedrim, — those of Purim and the Dedication. 
The first was a festival of great triumph and rejoicing in honor 
of the preservation of the Jewish people from a general massa- 
cre through the devotion of the Jewess Esther, wife of Ahasue- 
rus, King of Persia, and Mordecai, her uncle. This feast occurs 
about the middle of our March. The fourteenth and fifteenth 
days of Adar were, by the decree of Mordecai, to be honored " as 
the days wherein the Jews rested from their enemies, and the 
month which was turned unto them from sorrow to joy, and from 
mourning into a good day : that they should make them days of 
feasting and joy, and of sending portions one to another, and 
gifts to the poor. . . . And that these days should be remembered 
and kept throughout every generation, every family, every prov- 
ince, and every city ; and that these days of Purim should not 
fail from among the Jews, nor the memorial of them perish from 
their seed" (Esth. ix. 22, 28). We are witnesses at this late 
day of the hearty enthusiasm with which this popular holy day 
is still enjoyed by the Hebrew citizens of our own land. 

Like the Purim, the feast of Dedication, also called the feast 
of Lights, is one of much household rejoicing. It was instituted 
to commemorate the restoration of the divine worship in the 
Temple B.C. 164, after its defilement at the hands of the hea- 
then conqueror, Antiochus Epiphanes. A detailed account of the 
purification of the sanctuary, and its re-dedication " with songs, 
and citherns, and harps, and cymbals," and " the sacrifice of deliv- 
erance and praise," is given in the Apocryphal book of 1 Mace. iv. 
This feast is mentioned only once in the New Testament: St John, 
in his Gospel, prefaces a sermon of our Lord to the Jews by the 
incidental remark, " It was at Jerusalem, the feast of the Dedi- 
cation, and it was winter. And Jesus walked in the Temple in 
Solomon's Porch " (x. 22, 23). It began on our Christmas Day, 



DOMKSTIC AND PUBLIC AVORSIilP. 



281 



the twenty-fifth of Chisleu (December), the anniversary of the 
profanation of the Holy Place. The peculiar feature of this 
feast was the general illumination of 
Jewish houses : the family assembled 
in the evening, and one lamp or can- 
dle was lighted for each member on 
the first night, two for each one on 
the second, and so on to the eighth ; 
while the children joined in the Hal- 
lel, or some simpler Hebrew hymn. 
This pleasing custom sprang from a 
tradition of the Rabbis, that, when 
the Jews under Judas Maccabseus 
drove out the heathen from the Tem- 
ple, they found one bottle of the 
sacred oil that had escaped the pro- 
fane ransacking. With this they 
lighted the lamps of the altar, and 
by a mu-acle it was made sufficient 
for the eight days of " mirth and 
gladness " before the Lord. 

It will be necessary to omit descrip- 
tion of the many recurring seasons 
of rehgious significance to the Jew- 
ish people, as prescribed in their law ; 
sucli as the feast of New Moons, and 
that of Trumpets ; the sabbatical year, 
the year of Jubilee, and others ap- 
pointed under the Rabbinical dispen- 
sation to commemorate contempora- 
neous events of national deliverance 
or humihation ; as well as fasts, an- 
nual and accidental, that formed no 
part of the original Hebrew ritual. 

The only fast of Mosaic obligation was the great Day of Atone- 
ment, commanded as a " statute for ever : " " In the seventh 




282 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

month, on the tenth day of the month, ye shall afflict your souls, 
and do no work at all, whether it be one of your own country, 
or a stranger that sojourneth among you : for on that day shall 
the priest make an atonement for you, to cleanse you, that ye 
may be clean from all your sins before the Lord " (Lev. xvi. 
29, 30). The seventh month (Tisri) corresponds to our early 
October. This day was marked by a most rigid fast from sunset 
to sunset, and otherwise kept with profoundest solemnity. The 
Rabbis not only forbade eating and drinking, but one must nei- 
ther wash, nor anoint, nor put on shoes, nor delight himself with 
wife or children. Two notable exceptions were permitted : to 
this general prohibition as to personal preparation the king 
and a bride might wash and anoint even on that holy day, — 
the king, because he must always preserve his majesty and beauty 
in the eyes of his subjects ; the bride, lest unhappily she should 
forfeit the admiring preference of her new husband. The chil- 
dren, though not required to fast, were gradually inured to absti- 
nence, and instructed in the solemn significance of the day. The 
sick were likewise exempt, and such as providentially came 
under the following curious conditions : " any one faint with 
hunger, or injured by accident, or by the fall of a wall, or by the 
bite of a mad dog, or a violent sore throat." For these the tradi- 
tional maxim, " Danger of life supersedes the sabbath," was 
applied to the Day of Atonement. On this day, alone of all the 
year, the high priest, laying aside his gorgeous robes of office, 
put on his white linen vestments, and entered the Holy of Ho- 
lies, — first with incense, and a second time with the atoning blood 
of the appointed victim, which he sprinkled upon the mercy-seat. 
This rite was so awful that it was always feared the high priest 
would not survive its solemnization ; he was therefore warned 
not to tarry in the Most Holy Place, even to pray, lest a panic 
should seize the attending priests and congregation. The dis- 
tinctive feature of the ceremonial for this day was the sacrifice 
of one goat, and the sending away of another, called the scape- 
goat, according to the command given to Moses : " Aaron shall 
lay both his hands upon the head of the live goat, and confess 



DOMESTIC AND PUBLIC WORSHIP. 



283 



over him all the iniquities of the children of Israel, and all their 
transgressions in all their sins, putting them upon the head of 
the goat, and shall send him away by the hand of a fit man into 
the wilderness : and the goat shall bear upon him all theii- in- 




THE MOUNTAIN OF THE SCAPEGOAT. 



iquities unto a land not inhabited : and he shall let go the goat 
in the wilderness " (Lev. xvi. 21, 22). During the prayer over 
the scapegoat the high priest uttered the Divine Name, at which, 
though it was " rather a sound than a name," so great was the 
awe it inspired, priests and people fell on their faces in profound 



284 home-lifp: in the bible. 

adoration. The animal was then led forth, and passed from one 
person to another, previously appointed to the ofhce, along the 
road from Jerusalem to the mountain called Tzuk. Huts had 
been erected at ten stations on the road, so that each conductor 
of the goat should travel only the distance termed a sabbath 
day's journey. The news of the ceremonial liberation of the 
scapegoat was " telegraphed " to Jerusalem by the waving of 
signals from station to station along the road it had been led. 
On one occasion, as tradition relates, the sin-laden victim found 
its way back to the city, to the superstitious consternation of the 
citizens ; and afterward it was the custom to push the goat over 
a precipice of the mountain to break its neck or its legs in the 
fall, — a summary proceeding, which can scarcely be. regarded as 
a literal fulfilment of the law above quoted, that the "fit man" 
should " let go the goat in the wilderness." 

The sins of all the people were thus transferred to the devoted 
creature ; and to see it thus driven forth with its imputed guilt, 
to suff"er for sin though incapable of sin, alone in the desolate 
wilderness, is a spectacle of profoundest significance to the Chris- 
tian, who beholds in it a remote type fulfilled in him of whom 
it was written, "He was wounded for our transgressions, he was 
bruised for our iniquities : . . . and the Lord hath laid on him 
the iniquity of us all" (Isa. liii. 5, 6) ; of whom the apostle, sup- 
plementing the prophecy, writes to the church at Corinth: "He 
hath made him (Christ) to be sin for us, who knew no sin ; that 
we might be made the righteousness of God in him" (2 Cor. 
V. 21). 

Dancing is mentioned very early in the Sacred Record as an 
act of triumphant worship ; and it seems originally to have had 
no part in social festivities, except in their connection Avith 
religious feasts. Among the Hebrews it was accompanied with 
sacred song, and usually practised by the women : thus, after the 
glorious deliverance of Israel by Avay of the Red Sea, Moses led 
the people in a song of exalted joy ; and the women responded 
with dancing and singing, as it is Avritten, " Miriam the proph- 
etess, the sister of Aaron, took a timbrel in her hand ; and all 



DOMESTIC AND PLiBLlC WORSHIP. 285 

the women went out after her with timbrels and with dances " 
(Exod. XV. 20). 

At the yearly feast of the Lord in Shiloh, during the days 
when the tabernacle was in that city, the " daughters of Shiloh" 
came out " to dance in dances ; " and it was at one of these 




ECCE HOMO! 



festivities that the young Benjaminites, lying in wait in the vine- 
yards, sprang out and caught " every man his wife of the 
daughters of Shiloh" (Judg. xxi. 21), — an example which was 
followed after a modified fashion in the days of the Rabbis, when 
the voung Hebrews were exhorted to make choice of wives from 



286 home-lifp: in the bible. 

among " the damsels of Jerusalem who went out in white gar- 
ments, and danced amid the vines." at the feast of Harvest and 
at the close of the Day of Atonement. 

Sometimes men only participated in these religious dances, as 
in the feast of Tabernacles, where men with torches danced by 
the light of the great lamps in the woman's court of the Temple. 
An illustrious example is found in King David on the occasion 
of his bringing up the ark of the Lord from the house of Obed- 
edom to Jerusalem, when " David danced before the Lord with 
all his might, . . . leaping and dancing before the Lord" (2 
Sara. vi. 14, 16). In the Psalms he calls upon the people thus 
to be " joyful in their king : " " Let them praise his name in the 
dance," " praise him with the timbrel and dance " (Ps. cxlix. 3 ; 
cl. 4). 

Dancing also formed a prominent feature in the religious 
ceremonies of the Egyptians and other idolatrous nations. 

The origin of the synagogue, so familiarly alluded to in the 
New Testament, is wrapt in obscurity, though tradition boldly 
traces it back to patriarchal times. There is no trace of syna- 
gogue worship, either in the law or the prophets, — certainly 
nothing in common with that of the ancient ritual, wherein the 
sacrificial services were wholly typical. But during the Baby- 
lonish captivity, while the Jews were deprived of their Temple 
services, it was necessary to substitute some forms of religious 
meeting, lest the people, especially the young, should become 
tainted with the pagan practices about them. Attentive students 
discover the beginnings, the early germs, of the synagogue insti- 
tution in the days of Ezra and Nehemiah, when the dispersed 
Israelites, returning to the strongholds of their faith, sought to 
be spiritually revived by renewed instruction, both for themselves 
and their children, many of whom, as Nehemiah records, " spake 
half in the speech of Ashdod, and could not speak in the Jews' 
language " (xiii. 24). At all events, we know certainly that in 
the time of our Lord there was no town of any importance that 
had not its synagogue, while large cities had several, — wherever, 
indeed, there Avas a foreiijn settlement of Jews in wdiich ten men 



DOMESTIC AND PUBLIC WORSHIP 



287 



could be found to devote themselves exclusively to holy things, 
being supported meanwhile by the revenues of the synagogue. 
The inhabitants of small villages could attend the services of 
the nearest township on market-days, — 
a happy combination of commercial and 
spiritual interests. 

The highest ground in the town or city 
was always selected for the erection of the 
synagogue, which was usually very simple 
in its construction ; that of Alexandria, 
described in both the Talmuds, being 
exceptionally gorgeous in displays of 
decorated architecture. It was even a 
matter of superstition with the citizens 
that no building should be above the one 
consecrated to religious teaching " and to 
prayer. It was considered a very meri- 
torious act of devotion to build a syna- 
gogue : thus in Capernaum, " the elders 
of the Jews," coming to Jesus to implore 
him to heal the sick servant of the Roman 
centurion, " besought him instantly, say- 
ing he was worthy for whom he should do 
this ; for he loveth our nation, and he hath 
built us a synagogue " (Luke vii. 4, 5). 
Of that wonderful sermon contained in 
the sixth chapter of St. John's Gospel, it 
is written, " These things said he in the 
svnagogue, as he taught in Capernaum" 
(59). 

But synagogues were usually built at 
the expense of the congregation, with such 
assistance as might be offered by wealthy 

citizens. In small communities of Jews, one large room in a 
private house was sometimes secured for the purpose. This 
practice, we know, was adopted by the early Church, where the 



288 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

brethren broke bread " from house to house " (Acts ii. 46). The 
apostle Paul specifies some of these consecrated apartments : 
" The church m thy house " (Epistle to Philemon) ; " Nymphas, 
and the church in his house " (Col. iv. 15) ; " Aquila and Priscilla 
salute you much in the Lord, with the church that is in their 
house " (2 Cor. xvi. 19). The earliest Christian church edifices 
seem to have been constructed on the model of the synagogue, 
which in its turn retained some suggestive resemblance to the 
Temple. The separate apartments for men and women was a 
feature of Temple worship reproduced in the synagogue by 
means of a partition and diff"erent entrances : this appears to 
have been simply a concession to Eastern manners and opinions. 
At first it is probable that the congregation stood in praying or 
hearing the reading of the law ; but, after the services became 
more protracted, seats were provided. It will be remembered 
that our Lord warned the people against those scribes who " love 
the chief seats in the synagogues " (Matt, xxiii. 6), which, we 
are told, were placed facing the Avorshippers. 

The substitution of outward performances, in the mere " let- 
ter" of devotion, for the symbolical and typical worship of the 
Temple, showed a great spiritual decline in that day and genera- 
tion. Still there was nothing in the services themselves to pro- 
hibit the presence of the Lord or his disciples : on the contrary, 
the studied informality of proceedings aff"orded the best of all 
opportunities to preach the gospel tidings to the " common peo- 
ple," who "heard him gladly." The main object of the synagogue 
service was teaching, as attested by Josephus and other writers, as 
well as by the indirect reports of the Gospels, where " teaching" 
is almost always mentioned as connected immediately with our 
Lord's appearance in the synagogue of any town whatever. 
There was no service of " praise ; " but the liturgy in general use 
consisted of prayer and the Aaronic benediction by the priest, 
according to command : " On this wise ye shall bless the children 
of Israel, saying unto them. The Lord bless thee, and keep thee: 
the Lord make his face shine upon thee, and be gracious unto 
thee : the Lord lift up his countenance upon thee, and give thee 



DOMP^STIC AND PUBLIC WORSHIP. 289 

peace " (Num. vi. 23-26). The ordinary " teaching " included 
the reading of a portion of the law, and of the prophets, which 
was followed by an address or sermon. This was preceded, how- 
ever, by the repetition of the " Shema," a sort of creed, composed 
of certain texts of Scripture. We learn from the Mislmah that 
'• all males Avere bound to repeat this creed twice every day ; but 
women, children, and slaves were exempt from the obligation." 
If the sermon was a profound theological discussion by some 
learned Rabbi, he whispered his subtile deductions into the ear 
of a speaker who translated it, so to say, into popular language 
for the mixed congregation ; on the other hand, lighter addresses 
and monitions were made quite extemporaneously, and Avere 
called '• talks." 

In view of this meagre spiritual diet, we are not surprised to 
learn that when Christ the Lord became their preacher, opening 
his " mouth in parables," and " uttering things " Avhich had been 
" kept secret from the foundation of the world " (Matt. xiii. 35), 
" the people were astonished at his doctrine, for he taught them 
as one having authority, and not as the scribes " (Matt. 
vi. 28, 29). Even in his own country, where he testified to the 
unbelief of his kindred and neighbors, they could not withhold 
the general tribute : " He taught them in their synagogue, inso- 
much that they were astonished, and said. Whence hath this 
man this Avisdom, and these mighty works "? " (Matt. xiii. 54.) 
In Nazareth " all bare him witness, and Avondered at the gracious 
Avords A\4iich proceeded out of his mouth " (Luke iv. 22) ; in 
Capernaum " they Avere astonished at his doctrme : for his Avord 
Avas Avith poAver" (Luke iv. 32); and in Jerusalem, at the feast 
of Tabernacles, AA'hen he Avas boldly preaching in the Temple to 
the thronging multitude, " the Pharisees and the chief priests 
sent officers to take him " (John vii. 32) : but these men, dis- 
armed of their purpose, had no explanation to make before the 
council of their failure in official duty, — nothing but to echo 
the popular voice, " Never man spake like this Man ! " (Matt, 
vii. 46). 

The JcAvs had other places of prayer, whether in connection 



290 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

with the synagogue, or in towns where they Avere not permitted 
to build a sacred edifice, or were too poor to do so, is not known. 
It is certain that there were such resorts, — a plain building, or 
often only a grove, — and that they were generally situated near 
the water for convenience in the ablution required before en- 
gaging in religious offices. To such a meeting-place St. Paul 
and Timothy conduct us in their missionary visit to Philippi : 
" On the sabbath we went out of the city by a river side, where 
prayer was wont to be made ; and we sat down, and spake unto 
the women which resorted thither " (Acts xvi. 13). Dr. Pusey 
quotes from a decree of the Halicarnassians, which permitted 
" that those of the Jews who willed, men and women, should 
keep the Sabbaths, and perform their rites according to the 
Jewish laws, and make oratories hy the sea, according to their 
country's wont." And here that lovely lament of the Psalmist 
finds its appropriate place : — 

PSALM CXXX. 

" B_y the rivers of Babj-lon, there we sat down, A^ea, we wept, when we 
remembered Zion. 

" We hanged our harps upon the willows in the midst thereof. 

" For there they that carried us away captive required of us a song ; and 
they that wasted us required of us mirth, saj-ing, Sing us one of the songs 
of Zion. 

" How shall we sing the Lord's song in a strange land? 

" If I forget thee, O Jerusalem, let m}' right hand forget her cunning. 

" If I do not remember thee, let mj- tongue cleave to the roof of my 
mouth ; if I prefer not Jerusalem above m}' chief jo}'." 




XI. 

MUSIC: SACRED AND SECULAR. 

USIC — both instrumental and vocal — filled so exalted 
an office in the sacred liturgy of the Hebrews, that to 
_ omit all allusion to the art in this connection would 

(^^^ s(? ^g a serious inadvertence. Its antiquity is truly prime- 
^^ val ; for the first mention of music in the Bible is, that 
^^ Jubal, sixth in descent from Cain, Avas " the father of all 
such as handle the harp and organ" (Gen. iv. 21). The social 
use of the " divine art," even in the age of the patriarchs, is 
demonstrated in the remonstrance of Laban to his absconding 
son-in-law : " Wherefore didst thou flee away secretly, and steal 
away from me ; and didst not tell me, that I might have sent 
thee .away with mirth, and with songs, with tabret, and with 
harpV (Gen. xxxi. 27.) While, as late as the second century 
before Christ, the son of Sirach declares, with the somewhat 
extravagant simile of an Oriental, that a " concert of music in a 
banquet of wine is as a signet of carbuncle set in gold. As a 
signet of an emerald set in a work of gold, so is the melody of 
music with pleasant wine " (Ecclus. xxxii. 5, 6). But it is chiefly 
as an element of worship that music appears in the Bible, and 
in tliis relation to the homes of the people it is desirable to con- 
sider it. From the banks of the Red Sea, after " Israel saw 
that great work which the Lord did upon the Egyptians" in 
delivering his people out of their hands, ascended the first grand 
sacred song of joy and thanksgiving recorded in the Scriptures, 
— a song accompanied by Miriam the prophetess, and all the 
women, "with timbrels and Avith dances" (Exod. xv. 1, 20). So, 
again, in a later day of Israel's triumph, — this time delivered by 



292 



HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 



*' the hand of a woman," — Deborali, prophetess and judge of 
the nation, sang an msphed ptean to the praise of God that is 
scarcely excelled in the Biblical anthology (Judg. v.). 

When the king brought the ark of God from the house of 
Abinadab, we are told that " David and all Israel played before 
God with all their might, and with singing, and with harps, and 
with psalteries, and with timbrels, and with cymbals, and with 




GLORIA IN EXCELSIS! 



trumpets ; " and its final moving " out of the house of Obed- 
edom" -was accompanied with every demonstration of religious 
rejoicing, — " with shouting, and with sound of the cornet, and 
with trumpets, and with cymbals, making a noise with psalteries 
and harps" (1 Chron. xiii. 8; xv. 28). David was endowed with 
remarkable musical gifts, and personally proficient in the han- 
dling of at least one instrument. While keeping " those few 
sheep in the wilderness " near Bethlehem, he had become so 



MUSIC: SACRED AND SECULAE 



293 



" cunning a player on an harp," that he was sent for from court 
to soothe with his melodious numbers the melancholy of the 
king (1 Sam. xvi. 16). During his own reign, therefore, we are 
prepared for those indications of progress in music Avhich are 
chronicled pre-eminently in connection with the service of the 
sanctuary. In assigning certain families to the various offices 




of the house of God, a decided prominence is given to those 
who figure in the musical department. Of the thirty-eight thou- 
sand Levites, " four thousand praised the Lord with the instru- 
ments " (1 Chron. xxiii. 5) ; of the twenty-four courses, or classes, 
of musicians, each numbered one hundred and fifty members and 
three leaders, — all being under the general management of 
Asaph and his brethren. On festival occasions, when all were 
required to be present, the grand choir consisted of four thousand 
musicians and singers, the priests accompanying on silver trum- 
pets. Josephus, whose statements may be received with some 
grains of doubt, says that there were two hundred thousand 
vocalists, and the same number of instrumental performers, 
employed in the service of Solomon's Temple ; and their exact 
training is to be inferred from the words of the sacred histo- 
rian : " The trumpeters and singers were as one, to make one 



294 



HOME-LIFE IN THE BHiLE. 



sound to be heard in praising and thanking the Lord " (2 Chron. 
V. 13). 

The musical instruments specified in the Bible may be classed 
under three heads, — wind and stringed instruments, with those 
of percussion, or such as emit sound on being struck. The organ, 
pipe, and flute were the earliest as Avell 
as the simplest of musical instruments. 
Originally they were merely reeds, such 
as Eastern shepherds still use, perforated 
at intervals, and played by the mouth. 
The primitive organ is supposed to be 
that which the Greeks termed the " pipe 
of Pan," and which consisted of seven or 
more reeds of unequal length. These 
rude pipes, especially the double pipe, are 
represented on Egyptian monuments, and 
were played as our flute is. When Solo- 
mon Avas anointed King of Israel " the 
people piped with pipes, and rejoiced with 
great joy "' ( 1 Kings i. 40). This instru- 
ment Avas especially appropriate for occa- 
sions of merrymaking : the children in 
the parable say one to another, " We have 
piped unto aou, and ye have not danced " 
(Luke vii. 32). In later times these AA^nd 
instruments Avere constructed more elabo- 
rately of various materials, — brass, cop- 
per, box-Avood, horn, bone, or ivory, and 
ingeniously decorated. 

The horn and cornet, as their names 
denote, Avere doubtless at first only the horns of animals. 
When they came to be manufactured of metal, they retained 
both the shape and name of the original article. There are 
several HebrcAV Avords variously translated " trumpet," " horn." 
and "cornet;" but these seem to liaA^e differed only in trifling 
particulars, if at all. The priests' silver trumpets Avere straight. 




MUSIC: SACRED AND SECULAR. 



295 



The Greeks had six varieties 
of trumpets ; the Romans, four : these Avere used on the battle- 
field, and constituted their sole equipment for martial music. 
The Psalmist invokes the congregation of the faithful : " With 
trumpets and sound of cornet make a joyful noise before the 
Lord, the King" (Ps. xcviii. 6). 

Of stringed instruments the harp was regarded as of the first 




CHOIR OF ANGELS. 



importance by the lovers and patrons of early Oriental music. 
Much research and fancy have been expended upon discussions 
as to the shape and other particulars of this charming instru- 
ment. Judging from Assyrian and Egyptian monuments, where 
it often appears, it seems probable that the most ancient form 
of the harp was a triangular frame within which the strings of 
camel-gut were stretched. The Babylonian and Assyrian harps 
were " carried under one arm, and played with both hands, one 



296 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

on either side of the strings," as our own is to-day. It has heen 
conjectured by some inquirers that the ancient harp was played 
by means of a plectnim, — a small bit of quill, ivory, or bone. 
There are also contending opinions as to the number of strings : 
"from seven to forty-seven" have been "ascertained." This 
instrument, so popular with the Hebrews, Egyptians, and Assy- 
rians, has, — unlike most of the others of Biblical fame, — in a 
measure, disappeared from Oriental countries. The Psalmist, 
exhorting the people to " make a joyful noise unto the God of 
Jacob," enumerates " the pleasant harp with the psaltery " (Ps. 
Ixxxi. 2) ; and again, he says, " Sing unto him with the psaltery, 

(Ps. xxxiii. 2); and again, 
, cviii. 2). The " psaltery " 
was a species of harp, about which there is much difference of 
opinion ; it being severally termed a lyre, a lute, a guitar, and 
a viol. Josephus says it had twelve strings. The psalteries of 
David, we are told, were made of fir-wood (2 Sam. vi. 5) ; those 
of Solomon, of the algum-tree, — a novel experiment, doubtless, 
as the historian adds, " There were none such seen before in the 
land of Judah" (2 Chron. ix. 11). 

The " sackbut " was still another variety of harp, supposed to 
resemble that of the Egyptians, which rested on the ground, and 
was almost identical with our modern instrument. The samhuca 
of the Romans was a triangular harp with four or more strings, 
which emitted a sharp, twanging sound. 

The ancient guitar, having from three to twenty-four strings, 
is known to us as the cithern, or cittern : it was of Greek origin, 
but was extensively adopted by the Chaldeans, Egyptians, and 
Assyrians, and is still popular in the East. The proverb that 
" there is no new thing under the sun" (Eccles. i. 9) is not more 
aptly illustrated perhaps than by the fact that the orighial of 
the modern banjo has been found at Thebes, and described by 
Wilkinson, with " the wooden body covered with leather, the 
handle extending down to the lower side, and part of the string 
remaining to which the plectrum was attached." 

The " dulcimer " is regarded by the best Biblical authorities as 



MUSIC: SACRED AND SECULAR. 297 

a sort of bagpipe, still in use among the peasantry of North- 
western Asia and Sontliern Europe. It consisted of two pipes 
attached to a leather bag, Avhich, inflated with wdnd from the 
mouth, was held in the arms, and pressed to the body. 

All these instruments are enumerated in connection with the 
famous decree of Nebuchadnezzar after he had set up the golden 
image in the plain of Dura : " Then a herald cried aloud, To 
you it is commanded, O people, nations, and languages, that at 
what time ye hear the sound of the cornet, flute, harp, sackbut, 
psaltery, dulcimer, and all kinds of music, ye fall down and 
worship the golden image that Nebuchadnezzar the king hath 
set up" (Dan. iii. 4). The Babylonians were extremely fond of 
music, as their monuments testify : they had an ample variety of 
instruments, and organized large bands of skilled performers in 
concert. " Annarus, a Babylonian noble, entertained his guests 
at a banquet with music, vocal and instrumental, performed by a 
band of one hundred and fifty women." 

Lastly, among musical instruments of percussion, we find the 
" cymbals," the " sistrum," and the " timbrel." The cymbals of 
remote antiquity resembled those in use at the present day, and 
consisted of two circular concave plates of brass, which, when 
struck forcibly together, produced a loud, clanging sound. They 
were of two sorts, as exemplified in 
the words of David : " Praise him /^^^^\ 

upon the loud cymbals ; praise him "*" 

upon the high-sounding cymbals ! " 
The fii'st are supposed to have been 

used like castanets, — two small metal ^^^=afe--4^--~-^=,^^ 

plates in each hand, clapped by the ecTykiian cymbals. 

thumb and second finger ; while the 

'•high-sounding cymbals" were the larger plates, such as we 
see in military bands. St. Paul refers to this clanging accom- 
paniment in the opening sentence to his sublime eulogium. of 
charity : " Though I speak with the tongues of men and of 
angels, and have not charity, I am become as sounding brass, 
or a tinkling cymbal" (1 (!or. xiii. 1). 



298 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

The " sistrura " was pre-eminently the sacred instrument of 
the Egyptians, essential to their public religious service. It was 
made of brass, from eight to eighteen inches long, having three 
or four movable bars, on which hung several loose rings. The 
instrument was often highly ornamented with silver and gold ; 
and it was '■ played" by simply holding it upright, and producing 
a clattering noise by shaking the rings. Only a queen, or some 
noble Egyptian lady who enjoyed the distinction of being one of 
the '• women of Anum" (an exalted sodality of the temple), was 
permitted to hold the sacred sistrum during worship. It is 
asserted that the drum was used by the Egyptians in war ; and 
their sculptures represent an instrument of wood or copper 
covered at the extremities with skin or parchment, and suspended 
from the neck of the drummer. 

The " timbrel," or " tabret," is almost identical Avith the 
familiar tambourine of our street-singers. It was equally popular 
with the Assyrians, Egyptians, and 
Hebrews, and is frequently men- 
tioned in Scripture. Job speaks of 
those careless, worldly men who 
" take the timbrel and harp, and 
rejoice at the sound of the organ " 
(Job xxi. 12). The prophet prom- 

TUE TIMBREL. ^ / . / '" '' 

ises the " vn'gm oi Israel, Ihou 
shalt again be adorned with thy tabrets, and shalt go forth in 
the dances of them that make merry " (Jer. xxi. I) ; even as the 
sweetly submissive daughter of Jephthah, all unconscious of 
her father's vow, " came out to meet him with timbrels and 
with dances " (Judg, xi. 34) ; and David, describing- an act of 
worship in the sanctuary, Avrites, " The singers went before, the 
players on instruments followed after ; among them were the 
damsels playing with timbrels " (Ps. Ixviii. 25). 

In the New Testament we find very meagre notice of music, 
either in its social or spiritual connection. St. Paul, in his 
Epistle to the Ephesians, alludes to the simple hymns that con- 
stituted a characteristic of the public worship of the early Chris- 




MUSIC: SACRED AND SECULAR. 299 

tian Church : "Be filled with the Spirit ; speaking to yourselves 
in psalms and hymns and spiritual songs, singing and making- 
melody in your heart to the Lord" (v. 19); and again to the 
Colossians : " Let the word of Christ dwell in you richly in all 
wisdom ; teaching and admonishmg one another in psalms and 
hymns and spiritual songs, singing with grace in your hearts to 
the Lord" (iii. 16). But in the Apocalyptic Vision, Music once 
more assumes her exalted place in the solemn worship of the 
Almighty. St. John, beholding the heavenly Mount Zion, 
" heard the voice of harpers harping with their harps : and they 
sung as it were a new song before the throne " (Rev. xiv. 2, 3). 
Of the victorious multitude standing " on the sea of glass, having 
the harps of God," he writes, " And they sing the song of Moses 
the servant of God, and the song of the Lamb, saying. Great 
and marvellous are thy works, Lord God Almighty ; just and 
true are thy ways, thou King of saints (Rev. xv. 3). 



.^.rim 





XII. 

ALMS AND HOSPITALITIES. 

Ip^ HE pious practice of " almsdeeds," as enjoined by the 
IjJ;^ law and inculcated by parental exhortation, was a 
prominent feature in the religion of the Jews ; and it 
was not subject to the spasmodic sympathies of the 
individual, but was made the habit of his life by a well- 
ordered system of benevolence, whereby one-tenth of his 
substance was consecrated to God ; and he Avas further stimulated 
to voluntary offerings of expiation or thanksgiving. It Avas 
with this tithe that the tribe of the Levites, Avho had no inher- 
itance Avith their brethren, Avere supported, according to the 
divine ordinance : " Behold, I have given the children of Levi 
all the tenth in Israel for an inheritance, for their service Avhich 
they serve, even the service of the tabernacle of the congrega-. 
tion" (Num. xviii. 21). That this system Avas in force, hoAv- 
ever, long before the time of Moses, is shoAvn by the " tithes 
of all" given to Abram by Melchizedek, king of Salem (Gen. 
xiv. 20) ; and by the voav made to God by Jacob after Avaking 
out of tlie sleep of his Avonderful vision : " For all that thou shalt 
give me, I Avill surely give the tenth unto thee " (Gen. xxviii. 22). 
The Book of Leviticus abounds in requirements addressed to 
iandoAvners for the benefit of their less fortunate neighbors : the 
corners of the fields must not be Avholly reaped, nor the gleanings 
of the harvest or the vineyard closely gathered. " Thou shalt 
leave them for the poor and stranger," Avas the holy laAV of God 
(xix. 9, 10) ; thus Boaz, in behalf of Ruth, who came to gather 
after the reapers in his barley-field, " commanded his young 
men, saying, Let her glean even among the sheaves, and re- 



ALMS AND HOSPITALITIES. -303 

proach her not ; and let fall also some of the handfuls on purpose 
for her, and leave them that she may glean them, and rebuke her 
not" (Ruth ii. 15, 16), Every third year there Avas a feast of the 
farmer's tithe, made in his own house, for the Levite and for the 
destitute : "At the end of three years thou shalt bring forth all 
the tithe of thine increase the same year, and shalt lay it up within 
thy gates : and the Levite, (because he hath no part nor inher- 
itance Avith thee,) and the stranger, and the fatherless, and the 
Avidow, AA'hich are Avithin thy gates, shall come, and shall eat and 
be satisfied ; that the Lord thy God may bless thee in all the 
AA^ork of thine hand Avhich thou doest" (Deut. xiv. 28, 29). 

From Genesis to Revelation one and the same Spirit speaks 
on this A'ital subject, Avhether from the code of Mosaic law, or 
through the voice of the AVord made flesh. If Ave read in Deuter- 
onomy, "For the poor shall never cease out of the land: there- 
fore I command thee, saying, Thou shalt open thine hand wide 
unto thy brother, to thy poor, and to thy needy, in thy land " (xv. 
11), Ave haA^e but to turn to the Gospel of St. Mark to hear Jesus 
saying, " For ye have the poor Avith you ahvays, and Avhensoever 
ye AA'ill ye may do them good" (xiv. 7); and to St. Luke: "He 
that hath tAvo coats, let him impart to him that hath none ; and he 
that hath meat, let him do likeAvise" (iii. 11). Of all subjects in 
the Bible inA-iting "doubtful disputation," "hard to be under- 
stood," and capable of being Avrested unto the destruction of the 
" unlearned and unstable " (as St. Peter Avrites of the Epistles of 
St. Paul), Ave think the passages prescribing the duty of large and 
liberal contributions to the poor may be discharged of any such 
misconstruction. The references in proof are so numerous, that 
it is embarrassing to choose from the accumulated stores of sacred 
laAvgiver, historian, prophet, priest, king, of Him Avho is all in 
One, and of his apostles. Even the Rabbis, of Avhose didactic 
formalism Ave are disposed to be suspicious, afford a grateful 
surprise by their truly devout admonitions on this subject of 
charity. One of their oldest commentaries thus enlarges upon 
the Avord of the Psalmist, " He shall stand at the right hand of 
the poor" (cix. 19) : " Whenever," says the commentator, "a poor 



304 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

man stands at thy door, the Holy One, blessed be his name, stands 
at his right hand. If thou givest him alms, know that thou shalt 
receive a reward from him who standeth at his right hand." The 
Talmud exhorts to imitation of God in these four acts of mercy : 
"He clothed the naked (Gen. iii. 21); He visited the sick 
(Gen. xviii. 1); He comforted the mourners (Gen. xxv. 11); 
and He buried the dead" (Deut. xxxiv. 6). As to the ten- 
der care of the destitute and the sick, they took the highest 
ground of even Christian devotion and self-sacrifice : " Tet thy 
house be wide open, and let the poor be the children of thy 
house," was a saying of Jose, a Rabbi of Jerusalem. 

We are bound to remind the reader that liberal charities have 
ever been a characteristic feature of all Oriental religions. When 
our Lord, for instance, gave this instruction to the people, — 
which sounds strangely to our ears, except in connection with 
annual festival occasions, in prisons, hospitals, and asylums, per- 
haps, — " But when thou makest a feast, call the poor, the 
maimed, the lame, the blind : and thou shalt be blessed, for they 
cannot recompense thee" (Luke xiv. 14), — he spoke to those 
who not only were accustomed to this act of charity, but who, 
when entertaining their own " friends, and brethren, and kins- 
men, and rich neighbors," always made additional provision for 
the poor, who gathered about the house in expectation of being 
called in to an outer room, where they might consume all that 
remained of the repast. There was doubtless much room, in 
these large public ministrations to the needy, for that self-glori- 
fication which our Saviour took occasion to rebuke in his Sermon 
on the Mount : " Take heed that ye do not your alms before 
men, to be seen of them : otherwise ye have no reward of your 
Father Avhich is in heaven. Therefore when thou doest thine 
alms, do not sound a trumpet before thee, as the hypocrites do 
in the synagogues and in the streets, that they may have glory 
of men. Verily I say unto you. They have their reward. But 
when thou doest alms, let not thy left hand know what thy right 
hand doeth : that thine alms may be in secret : and thy Father 
which seeth in secret himself shall reward thee openly" (Matt. 



ALMS AND HOSPITALITIES. 307 

vi. 1-J:). It may be that all unconsciously it was in this spirit 
the afflicted patriarch recalled his acts of mercy in happier days : 
" When the ear heard me, then it blessed me ; and Avhen the 
eye saw me, it gave Avitness to me : because I delivered the poor 
that cried, and the fatherless, and him that had none to help 
him. The blessing of him that was ready to perish came upon 
me : and I caused the widow's heart to sing for joy. I put on 
righteousness, and it clothed me : my judgment was as a robe 
and a diadem. I was eyes to the blind, and feet was I to the 
lame. I was a father to the poor : and the cause which I knew 
not I searched out" (Job xxix. 11-16), — a noble record that 
may well command our admiration and inspu'e our zeal. 

In the pious story of Tobit, in the Apocrypha, we read the 
advice of the godly father to his son in this matter: "Give of 
thy bread to the hungry, and of thy garments to them that are 
naked ; and according to thy abundance give alms ; " " For alms 
is a good gift, unto all that give it in the sight of the Most 
High ; " "If thou have but a little, be not afraid to give accord- 
ing to that little : for thou layest up a good treasure for thyself 
agamst the day of necessity" (Tob. iv. 16, 11, 8). The Psalms of 
David and the Proverbs of Solomon, his son, abound in assurances 
of the Almighty's peculiar solicitude for the poor, and in denun- 
ciations of the " wicked, who, in their pride, do persecute " 
them: as well as in declarations of the blessings awaiting him 
" that considereth the poor ; " him " that hath mercy on the 
poor ; " him that " stoppeth not his ears " at their cry ; him that 
" defends the poor and the fatherless ; that does justice to the 
afflicted and needy ; that delivers the poor and needy, and rids 
them out of the hand of the wicked." 

Zaccheus, the rich publican, confessed before Jesus, as he 
passed through Jericho, " Behold, Lord, the half of my goods I 
give to the poor ; and if I have taken any thing from any man 
by false accusation, I restore him fourfold " (Luke xix. 8). Cor- 
nelius, the centurion of the Italian band, " gave much alms to 
the people," and was rewarded, while fasting and praying unto 
God, Avith a visit from " a man ... in bright clothing," who 



308 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE, 

said, " Cornelius, thy prayer is heard, and thine alms are had in 
remembrance in the sight of God" (iVcts x. 31). Dorcas of 
Joj)pa, raised from the dead by St. Peter, was a "woman full 
of good works and almsdeeds which she did" (Acts ix. 36). The 
family of Stephanas, converts under St. Paul's preaching in 
Achaia, " addicted themselves to the ministry of the saints " (2 
Cor. xvi. 15). Phoebe, Priscilla, and Aquila, Epenetus, Mary, 
Urbane, are a few of the faithful mentioned by the apostle Paul, 
in his Epistle to the Komans, as his " helpers in Clirist," " ser- 
vants of the Church," doubtless foremost among them who were 
pleased " to make a certain contribution for the poor saints 
which are at Jerusalem " (Rom. xv. 26) ; but, of all " whose 
names are in the book of life," none have won more precious 
words of praise than she of whom Jesus spoke, as he sat over 
against the treasury in the Temple : " And he looked up, and 
saw the rich men casting their gifts into the treasury. And he 
saw also a certain poor widow casting in thither two mites. And 
he said, Of a truth I say unto you, that this poor widow hath 
cast in more than they all. For all these have of their abun- 
dance cast in unto the offerings of God : but she of her penury 
hath cast in all the living that she had " (Luke xxi. 1-4). Who 
shall tell, if perchance this woman had been in the " innumera- 
ble multitude of people " on that day when Jesus taught them 
those rich lessons of the things concerning the kingdom of God, 
and, hearing his word, — " Sell that ye have, and give alms ; pro- 
vide yourselves bags which wax not old, a treasure in the heav- 
ens that faileth not, where no thief approacheth, neither moth 
corrupteth" (Luke xii. 33), — had thus responded in the simple 
obedience of her heart by an act of faith that called forth the 
spontaneous commendation of the Saviour ? 

In the Temple in Christ's day were two safety chambers for 
the reception of these voluntary gifts of the people, as distinct 
from the payment of their tithes and other legal offerings. One 
was for the money put into the collecting chests, as referred to 
above ; the other for storage of valuable articles and vessels of 
plate, given for the service or decoration of the Temple. We 



ALMS AND HOSPITALITIES. 



309 



read in St. Luke that some spake to Christ " of the Temple, how 
it was adorned with goodly stones and gifts " (xxi. 5). Josephus 
writes, that among these costly offerings were golden vines, from 
which depended golden 
clusters of grapes as tall 
as a man. The custom 
of adornmg the temples 
of their gods Avith rich 
spoils of battle, and gifts 
from wealthy devotees, 
was common to all the 
heathen nations men- 
tioned in the Bible. The 
treasurers opened one of 
these chambers in the 
Temple once a month, 
and disposed of such 
gifts as could not be 
used in the sanctuary ; 
the other was inspected 
three times a year, imme- 
diately before the cele- 
bration of the three great 
feasts. The priests who 
counted the contents of 
the thu'teen collecting 
boxes were not allowed 
to wear " shoes, sandals, 
phylacteries, or a folded 
dress," lest they should 
be tempted to secrete 
any of the dedicated 

coins. The Mishnah explains that the residue of the offerings, 
after all legitimate expenses had been paid, was devoted to 
providing the gold plates with which the most holy place was 
covered. 




310 



HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 



One of the most striking scenes of the Gospel story is that 
wherein our blessed Saviour, "meek and lowly of heart," cleansed 
by summary process the polluted courts of the Temple, in fulfil- 
ment of David's prophecy : " The zeal of thine house hath 
eaten me up " (Ps. xlix. 9). 

From Capernaum, whither he had gone with " his mother and 
his brethren and his disciples," he went up to Jerusalem to the 
Passover, " and found in the Temple those that sold oxen and 
sheep and doves, and the changers of money sitting : and Avhen 

he had made a scourge of small 
cords, he drove the mall out of 
the Temple, and the sheep, and 
the oxen ; and poured out the 
changers' money, and overthrew 
the tables ; and said unto them 
that sold doves, Take these 
things hence ; make not my Father's house a house of merchan- 
dise " (John ii. 14-16). These traders were naturally of great 
convenience to those who came to make their prescribed offerings 
according to the law, since, on paying a certain sum, they Avere 
at once provided with all the essential articles, — the victims, 
the meal, oil, frankincense, and wine. The money-changers sup- 
plied the exact coin for the payment of the Temple tax incum- 
bent upon every Israelite. 

It is easy to see how such apparently innocent, and even essen- 




THE SHEKEL OF THE SANCTUARY. 



mere traps for the unwary, making the "house of prayer" a 
" den of thieves," even as our Lord said to those whom he dis- 
lodged (Matt. xxi. 13). 

Another class, constant in their attendance upon the gates of 
the Temple and of the synagogues, and even of rich men's 
houses, were the beggars, that have always formed so large a 
community in Oriental lands. Thus the blind man, restored to 
sight by Jesus, was seen of him as he " went out of the Temple," 
where he daily " sat and begged " (John ix. 8) ; and the lame 
man, healed by Peter and John, was " laid daily at the gate of 



ALMS AND HOSPITALITIES. 311 

the Temple which is called Beautiful, to ask alms of them that 
entered into the Temple " (Acts iii. 2) ; and Lazarus, a beggar, 
" was laid at the rich man's gate, full of sores " (Luke xvi. 20). 

But, while so many rules were prescribed to the giver of alms, 
there were not wanting — at least during the supremacy of the 
Rabbi — certain restrictions upon the eligibility of the recipient. 
No one who had a yearly income of so trifling a sum as two 
hundred denarii (about thirty American dollars), or who had so 
much as one-fourth that amount in ready cash, with which he 
might invest in a small trade, had any claim to the " corner of 
the field," or the " gleaning," or to a share in the " tithes of the 
poor," already described. Indeed, the Mishnah solemnly warned 
man or woman, Avho should take alms beyond their actual 
necessities or right, that beggary sooner or later would be the 
inevitable penalty ; but, on the other hand, whoever refused 
alms, although in pressing need, might confidently expect to be 
able to succor the destitute before leaving this life. 

Finally, for us, as Christians, the whole law and gospel on 
this matter of personal almsgiving, whether of money or time, 
or both, is summed up in these immortal words : "I was an hun- 
gred, and ye gave me meat : I was thirsty, and ye gave me 
drink : I was a stranger, and ye took me in : naked, and ye 
clothed me : I was sick, and ye visited me : I was in prison, and 
ye came unto me. Then shall the righteous answer him, saying. 
Lord, Avhen saw we thee an hungred, and fed thee 1 or thirsty, 
and gave thee drink ? When saw we thee a stranger, and took 
thee ui? or naked, and clothed thee'? Or when saw we thee 
sick, or in prison, and came unto thee? And the King shall 
answer and say unto them. Verily I say unto you, Liasmuch as 
ye have done it unto one of the least of these my brethren, ye 
have done it unto me " (Matt. xxv. 35-40). 

Yet must we not forget that higher heavenly love with which 
these material sacrifices must be ofi"ered to be acceptable ; and 
of which St. Paul Avrites to the Corinthians, and through them 
to all the world : " Though I bestow all my goods to feed the 
poor, and though I give my body to be burned, and have not 
charity, it profiteth me nothing" (1 Cor. xiii. 3). 



XIII. 

SEEDTIME AND HARVEST. 





N the earliest history of the Jewish people the tilling 
of the soil and the care of flocks and herds were, 
without doubt, the chief national occupation ; and the 
wise and beneficent laws of the Pentateuch, by which 



wealth, have commanded the profound respect of all succeed- 
ing generations. When God created Adam he also " planted a 
garden eastward in Eden. . . . And the Lord God took the man, 
and put him into the garden of Eden to dress it and to keep it " 
(Gen. ii. 8, 15). After the fall, " the Lord God sent him forth 
from the garden of Eden, to till the ground from whence he was 
taken." Hence Adam was the first farmer of all this teeming 
earth ; and his son Cain followed his father's calling, with the 



SEEDTIME AND HARVEST. 313 

generations of them that came after, even unto Noah (rest), 
who was so named by Lamech his father, saying, " This same 
shall comfort us concerning our work and toil of our hands, 
because of the ground Avliicli the Lord hath cursed " (Gen. v. 29). 
After the Dehige, it is written of Noah that he " began to be an 
husbandman, and he planted a vineyard " (Gen. ix. 20) ; but it 
was not until the Hebrews had passed through their Egyptian 
trial, their subsequent wanderings, and their entrance into the 
possession of the Promised Land, — into the enjoyment of " vine- 
yards and olive-trees " which they had planted not " (Dent. vi. 
11), — that they applied themselves strictly to the cultivation of 
the soil, and adopted the agricultural methods employed by its 
former owners. The inexhaustible fertility of the hillsides and 
plains of Palestine, its wonderful variety of climate, capable of 
producing the vegetation of both temperate and torrid zones, 
the abundant water-supply, and the natural enrichment of the 
soil by the disintegration of its limestone rocks, — all more than 
fulfilled to the Israelite the promise vouchsafed to his fathers 
during then- oppression in the country of their adoption : " And 
the Lord said, I have surely seen the affliction of my people 
which are in Egypt, and have heard their cry by reason of their 
taskmasters ; for I knoAv their sorrows ; and I am come down to 
deliver them out of the land of the Egyptians, and to bring them 
up out of that laud unto a good land and a large, unto a land 
flowing with milk and honey" (Exod. iii. 7, 8). 

A remarkable requirement of the Mosaic law was the rest 
prescribed for the land one year in every seven : " The seventh 
year shall be a sabbath of rest unto the land, a sabbath for the 
Lord : thou shalt neither sow thy field, nor prune thy vineyard " 
(Lev. XXV. 4). Each husbandman held his share of the ground 
for himself and his heirs by an everlasting tenure, — a system 
of tenantry, so to speak, under God, by which he might not 
even rent it beyond the fiftieth year, the Year of Jubilee : " The 
land shall not be sold forever : for the land is mine ; for ye are 
strangers and sojourners with me " (Lev. xxv. 23). The Hebrews 
learned much from the Egyptians, who were adepts in that pur- 



314 



HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 



suit which endowed their country Avith the distinction of being 
the granary of the world. The monuments of that most inter- 
esting land abound in representations of agricultural processes, 
and the implements proper to them. The methods of artificial 
irrigation practised by the Egyptians were as ingenious and 
various as they were effective in carrying the waters of the Nile 
at its annual inundation, far and wide, through fields and gardens 
divided by narrow channels to receive them. " Watering with 
the foot " — a practice referred to in the Bible, and by Virgil in 
the Georgics, as in vogue in his time — is supposed to indicate 
the manner of dhecting these artificial Avater-courses by opening 
or shutting their sluices with a touch of the foot, or by treading 
the soft soil to admit or cut off the water. Of these laborious 




EGYPTIAN CARTS. 



processes, however, the Israelites needed not to bring away any 
knowledge from the land of their sojourning : the Almighty had 
anticipated their possible apprehensions in this particular : " The 
land, whither thou goest in to possess it, is not as the land of 
Egypt, from whence ye came out, where thou sowedst thy seed, 
and wateredst it with thy foot, as a garden of herbs: but the 
land, whither ye go to possess it, is a land of hills and valleys, 
and drinketh water of the rain of heaven" (Dcut. xi. 10, 11). 
In a later day of greatly advanced civilization Solomon applied 
artificial irrigation to his fruit-gardens : "I made me pools of 
water, to Avater therewith the wood that bringeth forth trees " 
(Eccles. ii. 6). But his royal father had already given the praise 
and glory to God for the fulfilment of his word in a bucolic 




PEACOCK OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 



SEEDTIME AND HARVEST. 317 

poem full of the inspiration of Nature : " Thou visitest the 
earth, and waterest it: thou greatly enrichest it with the river 
of God, which is full of water : thou preparest them corn, when 
thou hast so provided for it. Thou waterest the ridges thereof 
abundantly : thou settlest the furrows thereof: thou makest it 
soft with shoAvers : thou blessest the springing thereof. Thou 
crownest the year with thy goodness ; and thy paths drop fat- 
ness. They drop upon the pastures of the wilderness : and the 
little hills rejoice on every side. The pastures are clothed with 
flocks ; the valleys also are covered over with corn ; they shout 
for joy, they also sing" (Ps. Ixv. 9-13). 

The implements employed in the various processes of primitive 
agriculture were necessarily simple, even to rudeness. At first 
the plough was probably only a stout and forked branch of a 
tree, having one end sharpened, while the other served as a 
handle. A Avooden " share," shod with a triangular bit of iron, 
requiring frequent sharpening, constituted the improved machine, 
such as is still used in Asia Minor. Fortunately the fruitful 
earth of the Holy Land needed only a slight scratching to pre- 
pare it for sowing. Steep places, inaccessible to the animals 
yoked to the plough, were tilled with the mattock or hoe. Oxen 
and asses were trained to the plough, being coupled to it by 
yokes attached to the end of a stout " tongue." The driver used 
a long " goad," one end having a broad blade of iron to free the 
ploughshare from clods of earth ; the other armed with a sharp 
spike with which to control the cattle. It is recorded of Sham- 
gar, son of Anath, that he " slew of the Philistines six hundred 
men with an ox goad" (Judg. iii. 31). It is this primitive instru- 
ment that is meant in the account of the conversion of St. Paul 
in his defence before Agrippa : " And when we were all fallen 
to the earth, I heard a voice speaking unto me, and saying in 
the Hebrew tongue, Saul, Saul, why persecutest thou me ? it is 
hard for thee to kick against the pricks " (Acts xxvi. 14). The 
yoke and goad are familiar Biblical symbols for chastisement and 
restraint, as they were of slavery among the heathen. The 
Romans required their prisoners of war to pass under a yoke in 



318 



HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 



acknowledgment of their submission : hence " subjugation." 
" Take my yoke upon you," says our gracious Redeemer, " for 
my yoke is easy, and my burden is light" (Matt. xi. 29, 30). 
And in the same spirit of freedom from " the law of sin 




and death," St. Paul exhorts the " foolish Galatians : " " Stand 
fast therefore in the liberty wherewith Christ hath made us free, 
and be not entangled again with the yoke of bondage " (Gal. 
V. 1). Justin Martyr informs us that the manufacture of these 



seedtimp: and harvest. 319 

implements belonged to the trade of carpenters, and that our 
blessed Lord had, up to his thu-tieth year, followed the craft 
of his reputed father, " making ploughs and yokes for oxen." 

The Egyptian monuments represent the ancient sickle as 
closely resembling the one in modern use. The scythe Avas un- 
known among these early farmers, nor is the harrow mentioned 
in the Scriptures. Job asks, " Will he (the unicorn) harrow the 
valleys after thee ] " (xxxix. 10); but the verb rendered harrow 
signifies to " break the clods." 

In Palestine the agricultural year was practically divided into 
the dry and rainy seasons, variously designated " seedtime and 
harvest," " summer and winter," " cold and heat." Seedtime 
continued from October until December, following the " former 
rain," which prepared the earth for the sower. The method 
of sowing grain seems to have been nearly the same in all times 
and with all peoples. Scattered broadcast over the prepared soil, 
the seed was ploughed in, according to the present practice, and 
as described by Isaiah : " Doth the ploughman plough all day to 
sow '? doth he open and break the clods of his ground % When 
he hath made plain the face thereof, doth he not cast abroad the 
fitches, and scatter the cummin, and cast in the principal wheat 
and the appointed barley and the rye in their place? (xxviii. 
24, 25.) In Egypt, asses, pigs, sheep, and goats were employed 
to tread the grain into the muddy soil, saturated by the overflow 
of the Nile : " Blessed are ye that sow beside all waters, that 
send forth thither the feet of the ox and the ass " (Isa. xxxii. 
20). 

The simple processes of sowing and reaping the " bread which 
strengthened man's heart " (Ps. civ. 15) have, apparently more 
than any other, furnished imagery and methods of instruction 
to the sacred writers. The reader will recall as prominent exam- 
ples the Parable of the Sower ; that of " the man who sowed 
good seed in his field" (Matt. xiii. 3; xxiv.) ; and that of a 
"certain rich man" Avhose ground "brought forth plentifully;" 
and St. Paul's profound demonstration of the resurrection of the 
body in his First Epistle to the Corinthians ; and the solemn 



320 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

words of our Lord of similar import relative to his own ap- 
proaching death : " Verily, verily, I say unto you. Except a corn 
of wheat fall into the ground and die, it abideth alone : but if it 
die, it bringeth forth much fruit " (John xii. 24). 

Grain-harvest began about the middle of April, and continued 
until mid-June ; the season of fruits comprised August, Septem- 
ber, and November. Snow in the mountains, hail and thun- 
der storms, and frequent rains, characterized the winter months, 
but without intense cold : the fields becoming green in the latter 
part of January. The "latter rain," so longed for by the hus- 
bandman to mature his crops of grain, fell early in April ; and 
on the sixteenth day after the first new moon in this month 
the first sheaf of ripe barley was solemnly presented to the Lord 
at the Passover, thus consecrating the entire returns. When 
the harvest had been plentiful, Pentecost was a season of great 
mirth and festivity, with appropriate songs and games for the 
children, hired laborers, and slaves of the landowner, who all 
had shared the toil of reaping the fields. " They joy before thee 
according to the joy in harvest," sang the Prophet of the coming 
kingdom of the Messiah (Isa. ix. 3) ; and the Psalmist encourages 
the spiritual laborer in his Master's field by reminding him of 
these well-known customs : " He that goeth forth and weepeth, 
bearing precious seed, shall doubtless come again with rejoicing, 
bringing his sheaves with him" (Ps. cxxvi. 6). The grain was 
cut with a sickle, or at first even plucked up by the root ; and 
the practice of binding the ripe grain into sheaves, or rather 
large bundles, is one of remote antiquity. The youthful Joseph 
unconsciously laid the foundation of his future greatness when 
he said to his brethren, " Hear, I pray you, this dream Avhich I 
have dreamed : for, behold, we were binding sheaves in the field, 
and, lo, my sheaf arose, and also stood upright ; and, behold, 
your sheaves stood round about, and made obeisance to my 
sheaf" (Gen. xxxvii. 5, 6). Kuth's request of the servant set 
over the reapers in the barley-field of Boaz was, " I pray you. 
let me glean and gather after the reapers among the sheaves " 
(Ruth ii. 7). And we read in Amos, " Behold, I am pressed under 



vSEEDTIME AND HARVEST. 321 

you, as a cart is pressed that is full of sheaves" (ii. 13). So in 
the parable the reapers were commauded, " Gather ye together 
first the tares, and bind them in bundles to burn them : but 
gather the wheat into my barn" (Matt. xiii. 30). 

As the time for mgathering approached, the Oriental husband- 
man must protect his crop from the invasion of wild beasts or 
thie-\'es : to do so effectually it was usual to build a small hut or 
lodge on an eminence, in which a watchman was installed, for 
security against enemies far or near. The prophet compares the 
condition of the Church to the desolation of such a watch-tower : 
" The daughter of Zion is left as a cottage in a vineyard, as a lodge 
in a garden of cucumbers " (Isa. i. 8). 

The threshing-floors of Egypt, as well as Palestine, have been, 
frora their earliest history, out of doors. They were simply flats 
of high ground from fifty to 
one hundred feet in diameter, 
levelled and rolled from year 
to year, so that they became 
in course of time literally 
" floors " of clay. Of the 
threshing-floors of the Bible '^~ 
the most famous is that of ^ 
Oman the Jebusite, which -^ 
was purchased by David for a v 

place of sacrifice to God, and 
which afterward was chosen 
as the site for the magnificent 

Temple of Solomon (1 Chron. xxi. 18-25). One of these table- 
lands usually served the agricultural purposes of an entire 
encampment or village, the farmers taking turns in threshing 
their harvests. The bundles of breadstuff's were scattered loosely 
on the surface of the floor, and the primitive threshing-machine, 
the " sharp threshing instrument having teeth," spoken of by 
Isaiah (xli. 15), was dragged over them, round and round the 
floor, until the grain was accumulated in a great heap in the cen- 
tre. The machine was a heavy square frame with rollers, each 



TIIULSIIIM. 1 1 



322 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 



teeth of a saw : sometimes the frame was in the form of a rude 
cart. Isaiah enumerates four methods of threshing : " For the 
fitches are not threshed with a threshing instrument, neither is 
a cart wheel turned about upon the cummin ; but the fitches 
are beaten out with a staff, and the cummin with a rod. Bread 
corn is bruised ; because he will not ever be threshing it, nor 
break it with the wheel of his cart, nor bruise it with his 
horsemen " (xxviii. 27, 28). 

The fitches and cummin ^ — ^ plants raised for their small seeds, 
which were highly pungent and aromatic condiments — were 
threshed with a rod or flail,- which was used also for very small 
quantities of grain, as when Ruth " beat out " the result of her 
day's gleaning in the field of her future husband (Ruth ii. 17) ; 
or when it was necessary to do the work by stealth, as Gideon 
" threshed wheat by the wine-press to hide it from the Midian- 
ites," his enemies (Judg. vi. 11). As the threshing-floor was 
not protected by enclosure, it was incumbent upon the owner of 
the grain, and his trusted servants, to keep watch night and day 
until the whole harvest was threshed, winnowed, and stored for 
safe keeping. So, in the lovely pastoral story of Ruth, we read, 
" When Boaz had eaten and drunk, and his heart was merry, he 
went to lie down at the end of the heap of corn " (iii. 7). The 
threshed heap was winnowed by tossing it against the wind 
(usually in the evening sea-breeze) with broad shovels, and thus 
separating the chaff from the grain, — the "shovel" and the 
" fan " are both mentioned in this connection by Isaiah (xxx. 24), 
— when the chaff was collected and burned. These processes 
are employed in a forcible figure by St. John the Baptist, to 
describe the coming Messiah : " Whose fan is in his hand, and 
he will thoroughly purge his floor, and gather his wheat into the 
garner ; but he will burn up the chaff with unquenchable fire " 
(Matt. iii. 12); and the Psalmist compares the wicked to "the 
chaff which the wind driveth away " (Ps. i. 4). The Egyptians 
and Romans used primitive threshing-sledges, — the Roman 
tribulum, heavy and sharply grinding, having given us the ex- 



SEEDTIME AND HARVEST. 



323 



pressive word " tribulation." One description of " fan " is sup- 
posed to have been an instrument with which an artificial breeze 
was created, in the absence of a natural supply. A still finer 
separation of the grain from the chaif was effected by sifting ; 
and sieves of different degrees of fineness, made of rushes or 
papyrus, were used by the ancients. A prophecy concerning the 
Jews, fulfilled long before our day, alludes to this ordinary 
utensil : '• I will sift the house of Israel among all nations, like 
as corn is sifted in a sieve " (Amos ix. 9). And in our Lord's 




CEDAItri UF LKBANOiSr. 



solemn address to St. Peter, concerning his spiritual danger, and 
that of his brother apostles : " Simon, Simon, behold, Satan 
hath desired to have you " (all), " that he may sift you as wheat : 
but I have prayed for thee, that thy faith fail not : and when 
thou art converted, strengthen thy brethren" (Luke xxii. 31). 

When the grain had been thoroughly prepared for household 
consumption, it was stored in ample pits or cisterns dug in the 
earth, some six or eight feet deep, either under a retired portion 
of the house, — such as the apartments of the women, — or in the 
open country, where their location was carefully concealed by 



324 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

sodding. These receptacles Avere cool and dry, and effectually 
protected from vermin by a packed layer of earth at the opening. 
Such subterranean granaries are alluded to in several passages 
of Scripture : in the enumeration of King David's officials of the 
royal household, " Jehonathan, the son of Uzziah," was " over 
the storehouses in the fields, in the cities, and in the villages, 
and in the castles " (1 Chron. xxvii. 25) ; and " ten men" saved 
themselves from the massacre of Ishmael, the son of Nethaniah. 
by confessing that they had " treasures in the field, of Avlieat. 
and of barley, and of oil, and of honey " (Jer. xli. 8). The 
" barns " mentioned in the parable (Luke xii. 18) were evidently 
built above ground ; since it was in their self-complacent owner's 
mind to pull them down, and " build greater." 

It is recorded of Joseph, that, in view of the impending- 
famine in Egypt, " he gathered up all the food of the seven 
years, . . . and laid up the food in the cities" (Gen. xli. 48). 
The ancient monuments of that land, famous for its agricultural 
achievements, in spite of great natural obstacles, represent a 
variety of these granaries that afforded every facility for the 
holding, and subsequent delivery, of their stores. Some were 
low, flat -roofed structures, divided into convenient rooms or 
vaults to receive the grain "in bulk" from the sacks. The 
Komans had such storehouses raised above the ground on stone 
pillars. In the subterranean grain-pits, we are told, that " corn" 
(the Bible term for all sorts of cereals) will keep perfectly sound 
for several years. Chenier, a French traveller, asserts that 
among the Moors it was customary for wealthy men to fill a 
granary of this sort at the birth of a child, not to be opened 
until its wedding-day ; and that, even after twenty -five years, the 
grain had been found in good condition, except in the loss of its 
whiteness. 

The cultivation of the vine claimed the care and skill of the 
Oriental husbandman equally with the tilling of the ground. 
The earliest mention of its culture, as already quoted, is after 
the Deluge, when Noah, beginning " to be a husbandman," 
" planted a vineyard " also. To Armenia and the adjacent terri- 



seedtimp: and harvest. 325 

tory belongs the distinction of being the original birthplace of 
the Eastern grape-vine ; but Palestine, of all countries in the 
world, seems best adapted by soil, climate, and natural features, 
to its successful cultivation. The table-lands and mountain-slopes 
were selected as the choice sites for vineyards ; but the plains 
and valleys, as well, have produced the preferred varieties, such 
as the famous clusters from the vales of Eschol and Sorek, and 
the vale of Kephaim between Bethlehem and Jerusalem. 

It appears that there were various modes of making a vine- 




A VINEYARD. 



yard in the East. A very ancient method was to plant beside 
natural ridges of stone, or by heaps of stones (called by the 
Arabs " grape-mounds "), gathered and piled for the purpose, 
over which the vines crept, and which afforded an admirable 
exposure for ripening the fruit, beside keeping the clusters off 
the ground. Miles of these stone-heaps are to be seen now in 
districts of Palestine east of the Jordan, once teeming with luxu- 
riant vineyards, but now utterly sterile and desolate. Another 
plan was to plant on the sunny side of a terraced hill, the branches 



326 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

of the vine trailing along the dry ground, while the fruit-bearing 
shoots were propped up on forked sticks ; or the young vines 
were simply set in rows eight or ten feet apart, and so trained as 
to form a mutual support. 

The fruit of the vine was highly esteemed in Egypt : the royal 
butler pressed grapes into Pharaoh's cup as early as Joseph's days 
of humiliation (Gen. xl. 11), and the ancient sculptors show us 
the Egyptian modes of grape-culture. In these the vines are 
trained on lattices, or rafters, or on circular frames ; and the 
various methods of making wine are depicted, which will be 
described farther on. The pruning and training of the vine, 
the annual use of the primitive spade — the hepalium of the 
E-oraans — to loosen the earth and eradicate weeds, and the 
gathering of stones, comprised the processes of cultivating a vine- 
yard ; the vinedressers constituting a humble class of laborers, 
distinct from farmers or growers of other fruits. In the dreadful 
siege and destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar, king of 
Babylon, it is recorded by the historian, that " the captain of the 
guard left of the poor of the land to be vinedressers and husband- 
men'" (2 Kings XXV. 12). 

To defend them from the ravages of wild beasts, vineyards 
were enclosed with stone walls, or with hedges of thorny plants, 
or with both stones and hedge combined. Balaam, riding on his 
ass. found himself " in a path of the vineyards, a wall being on 
this side, and a wall on that side " (Num. xxii. 24) ; and we find 
another example in Solomon's graphic " moral maxim : " "I 
went by the field of the slothful, and by the vineyard of the 
man void of understanding : and, lo, it was all grown over 
with thorns,, and nettles had covered the face thereof, and the 
stone wall thereof was broken down" (Pro v. xxiv. 31). David, 
mourning over the mystical vineyard whose vine had been 
" brought out of Egypt," complains to his God, " Why hast thou 
then broken down her hedges, so that all they which pass by the 
way do pluck her? The boar out of the wood doth waste it, and 
the Avild beast of the field doth devour it" (Ps. Ixxx. 12, 13); 
while Isaiah's beautiful " song of my Beloved, touching his vine- 



seedtimp: and harvest. 327 

yard," afFords a picture of tlie two enclosures : " I will tell you 
what I will do to my vineyard; I will take away the hedge 
thereof, and it shall be eaten up ; and break down the wall 
thereof, and it shall be trodden doAvn" (v. 5). The towers, 
always mentioned in connection with vineyards, seem to have 
been durable edifices of stone, round or square, and varying in 
height from fifteen to fifty feet, according to the location of the 
field. This building was sometimes occupied as a summer resi- 
dence by the proprietor until after the vintage ; and for defence 
against Avild beasts attracted by the ripening fruit, as well as the 
assaults of thieves, it was necessary to make it in a manner 
impregnable. Our Lord is supposed to allude to one of these 
agricultural strongholds in his lesson " in the house of one of the 
chief Pharisees : " " For Avhich of you, intending to build a tower, 
sitteth not down first, and counteth the cost, whether he have 
sufficient to finish it?" (Luke xiv. 28;) and Maundrell describes 
an unfinished tower he saw in a garden near Beirut, Avhich, with 
walls twelve feet thick, had been built to the height of about 
sixty feet, and then abandoned. Van Lennep describes one he 
had seen in Western Asia as " a square building of solid masonry, 
rising to the height of forty feet, on the top of which is a story 
containing several apartments with windows, Avhose elevated 
position makes it the recipient of every breeze, and an excellent 
post of observation. The lower portion of this building has a 
small, solid door, and a few narrow windows at a considerable 
height from the ground." They are called by the Greeks pyrgos, 
the very word used by our Saviour in the parable : "A certain 
man planted a vineyard, and set a hedge about it, and digged a 
place for the Avine-fat, and built a tower, and let it out to hus- 
bandmen, and went into a far country" (Mark xii. 1). 

To express the juice of the ripe grapes for the manufacture 
of Avine, AA'ine-presses Avere hcAvn out of the ledges of rock abound- 
ing on the hillsides of Canaan, or Averc constructed of rude 
masonry. They consisted of tAvo parts, — the shalloAV tank for 
the reception of the fruit, and a " Avine-fat," or A'at, into Avhich 
the juice ran through a hole in the upper tanlc. The fruit in the 



328 home-lifp: in the bible. 

wine-press was crushed by the bare feet of the laborers. Usually 
from two to seven men worked in company, lightening their 
labor with the songs and shouts peculiar to both the Egyptian 
and Hebrew grape-treaders. It is written of the men of She- 
chem, that they " went out into the fields, and gathered their 
Adneyards, and trode the grapes, and made merry" (Judg. ix. 27); 
and Isaiah laments, in the downfall of Moab, the absence of these 
familiar sounds of rustic glee : " Gladness is taken away, and joy 
out of the plentiful field ; and in the vineyards there shall be no 
singing, neither shall there be shouting: the treaders shall tread 
out no wine in their presses ; I have made their vintage shouting 
to cease " (xvi. 10). The prophet repeats the figure of the labor 
of the vintage in one of his most impressive presentations of the 
coming Messiah in the form of exalted and poetic colloquy: 
" Wherefore art thou red in thine apparel, and thy garments 
like him that treadeth in the wine-fat ? I have trodden the wine- 
press alone ; and of the people there was none with me : for I 
will tread them in mine anger, and trample them in my fury ; 
and their blood shall be sprinkled upon my garments, and I will 
stain all my raiment " (Isa. Ixiii. 2, 3). 

Some very ancient wine-presses, hewn from the solid rock, 
still remain in Palestine in as perfect condition as when last used 
at the merry vintage harvest of a dimly distant past. 

The law humanely stijoulated, " Thou shalt not glean thy vine- 
yard, neither shalt thou gather every grape of thy vineyard ; 
thou shalt leave them for the poor and stranger " (Levit. xix. 
10). It was the privilege of the poor, moreover, to eat on the 
ground as much fruit as they wished, only they might not take 
it away in vessels to their houses (Deut. xxiii. 25). It was com- 
mon to plant fruit-trees of various sorts in vineyards, after the 
manner of the ancient Egyptians : hence, in the parable, " a 
certain man had a fig tree planted in his vineyard " (Luke xiii. 
6). And to " sit under one's vine and fig tree " was a proverbial 
saying, expressive of domestic peace and satisfaction (1 Kings iv. 
25 ; Mic. iv. 4). This content was quite attainable by an Oriental 
within the modest limits of his courtyard ; since it was customary 




Illllillll 



SEEDTIME AND HARVEST. 331 

to train vines by the sides of the house (Ps. cxxviii. 3) or on 
trellises, and to plant fig-trees for shade in the court. 

The Old-Testament allusions, so many and so various, to the 
vine and the fruit of the vine, — whether employed for poetic 
imagery or to convey divme truth to the mind, — are replete with 
human interest and spiritual force ; but our Lord added to these 
a purely sacred association when he taught the direct " corre- 
spondence" of the vine and its branches to himself and his 
people : "I am the true vme, and my Father is the husband- 
man. Every branch in me that beareth not fruit, he taketh 
away : and every branch that beareth fruit, he purgeth " 
(pruneth) "it, that it may bring forth more fruit. ... I am the 
"\dne, ye are the branches " (John xv. 1, 5). And Avhen he 
sanctified the blood of the grape, for an everlasting memorial 
of himself, — to " shew the Lord's death till he come" (1 Cor. 
xi. 26). 

Another most important industry among the Jews was the 
cultivation of the olive, if that can be called " cultivation " which 
appears to have been nothing more than the wholesome letting- 
alone of a tree that flourished best among the rocks, and con- 
tinued fruitful to a great age. The invaluable oil was extracted, 
somewhat after the manner employed for grapes, by means of 
an oil-press, which commonly consisted of two large reservoirs 
hewn out of the rock. The berries, thrown into the perforated 
upper tank, were trodden with the feet, the oil flowing into the 
lower receptacle. The best was obtained from unripe fruit. 
Panniers or baskets Avere also used as presses. Egyptian olives 
were very inferior : hence the Hebrews sent their olive-oil as a 
gift to the Pharaohs. The olive-tree in its wild state is totally 
unfit for use : it must be subject to the process of grafting. 
This familiar fact furnishes St. Paul with one of his subtlest 
arguments, demonstrating the position held by the Gentile 
Church toward the Jewish: "For if thou wert cut out of the 
olive tree which is wild by nature, and Avert graffed contrary to 
nature into a good olive tree ; how much more shall these, Avhicli 
be the natural branches, be graffed into their OAvn olive tree 1 " 
(Rom. xi. 24.) 



XIV. 

FLOCKS AND HERDS. 




M<r<^^ 




BEL, that son of Adam whose innocent blood was shed 
by his brother's hand, — the earliest dim type of the 
Good Shepherd, who in after ages should give his life 
for the sheep, — was himself the first " keeper of 
sheep." The patriarchs and their descendants, prior to 
Israel's sojourn in Egypt, were employed in the same gen- 
tle industry, being almost exclusively shepherds and herdsmen ; 
for when, in the fulfilment of the divine plan, Jacob and his 
sons were brought to the land of the Nile, Joseph -instructed his 
brethren to explain this fact to Pharaoh : "Ye shall say, Thy 
servants' trade hath been about cattle from our youth even until 
now, both Ave, and also our fathers : that ye may dwell in the 
land of Goshen; for every shepherd is an abomination unto the 
Egyptians " (Gen. xlvi. 34). The wealth of the patriarchs con- 
sisted mainly of immense flocks and herds, in the care of which 
not only the sons but the daughters of the family bore their 



FLOCKS AND HERDS. 333 

important part. David was sent for, from the field where he 
kept his father's sheep, to be anointed king of Israel by the 
saintly prophet (1 Sam. xvi. 11); Saul, "a choice young man 
and a goodly," son of Kish, " a mighty man of power," thought 
it not amiss to be sent to seek the lost asses of his father's herds 
(1 Sam. ix. 3) ; Rachel, Laban's daughter, came to the well 
at Haran " Avith her father's sheep: for she kept them" (Gen. 
xxix. 9) ; and the seven daughters of the priest of Midian 
" came and drew water, and filled the troughs to water their 
father's flock." What time Moses defended them against the 
rude shepherds, and so won Zipporah for his wife ; while he 
himself, so soon to be the mighty leader and lawgiver of the 
people of God, "kept the flock of Jethro, his father-in-law" 
(Exod. ii. 16 ; iii. 1). 

Thns it will be seen that the care of sheep, in patriarchal 
times, was considered a most honorable employment for Jewish 
men of mark ; while the office of chief shepherd where there 
were many flocks, each with its trusty leader, was one of special 
dignity and responsibility, not derogatory even to royalty : for 
" Mesha king of Moab was a sheepmaster, and rendered unto 
the kmg of Israel a hundred thousand lambs, and a hundred 
thousand rams, with the wool" (2 Kings iii. 4). 

The contempt in which shepherds were held by the Egyptians 
is accounted for by the indignities the nation had suffered at an 
early period in its history, at the hands of a powerful horde of 
sheep-breeders, who occupied the country for several centuries. 
The shrewd Hebrew vicegerent took advantage of this popular 
prejudice to settle his family in a region of rich pasture, and to 
preserve them as a peculiar people, isolated from idolaters. 

The only right to the pasturage in Palestine seems to have 
consisted in taking possession, perhaps in some sligh cultiva- 
tion, or in the ownership of an adjacent well, — a o tem of 
landholding possible only to a sparsely populated country, with a 
vast extent of virgin soil, permitting the removal of great flocks 
and herds from one place to another as fast as the herbage was 
exhausted. This nomadic life imposed great privations upon the 



334 



HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE 



shepherds, — exposure, possible lack of food, except what was 
afforded by the natural products of the land, and often extreme 
peril from wild beasts attracted by the proximity of the flocks 
to their native haunts. Jacob pathetically reminds Laban, his 
father-in-law, of his twenty years' experience in this service : 
" That which was torn of beasts I brought not unto thee ; I bare 
the loss of it ; of my hand didst thou require it, whether stolen 




M' 




:tf AXf) UEKDy 



by day, or stolen by night. Thus I was ; in the day the drought 
consumed me, and the frost by night ; and my sleep departed 
from mine eyes" (Gen. xxxi. 39, 40). David slew both the lion 
and the bear that " took a lamb out of the flock " he was keeping 
for his father Jesse (1 Sam. xvii. 34). And at least three of the 
prophets, Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Amos, have depicted spirited 
conflicts of this sort ; to which our Lord has added his confii'ming 



FLOCKS AND HERDS. 335 

praise : " The good shepherd giveth his life for the sheep. But 
he that is a hu-ehng, and not the shepherd, Avhose own the sheep 
are not, seeth the wolf coming, and leaveth the sheep, and fleeth; 
and the wolf catcheth them, and scattereth the sheep " (John 
X. 11, 12). The necessity for care and courage on the part of 
the shepherd was naturally magnified by the fact, not without 
its profound spiritual application, that the sheep is the only 
animal, which, being lost or strayed ever so little, has no instinct 
to find its way home again : it must be sought for by the shep- 
herd, and brought back, — in the beautiful words of the parable, 
"When he hath found it, he layeth it on his shoulders, rejoicing. 
And when he cometh home, he calleth together his friends and 
neighbours, saying unto them, Rejoice with me ; for I have found 
my sheep which was lost" (Luke xv. 56). 

The ancient shepherd was furnished with weapons of defence 
very insufficient in proportion to his possible danger, — the staff 
from four to six feet in length, with its crook, by which he man- 
aged his flock ; and the sling, which to this day is used by the 
Bedouin Arabs. On his back he carried, and still carries, a 
"scrip," or bag of lambskin, suspended by straps, containing the 
simple meal of bread and 
cheese, Avith perhaps olives or 
onions for a relish. Job speaks 
contemptuously of men, " whom 
I would have disdained to have 
set. with the dogs " of my flock 
(xxx. 1); showing, that, since 
an age of remote antiquity, this 

faithful animal has shared the ^^.^^ ^^, siiLPHrRD-Doc. 

shepherd's labor, and won his 

friendship. A fine breed of shepherd-dog is found depicted on 
Babylonian sculptures. Both the Egyptians and the Assyrians 
used the apparently simple, but really formidable, " sling ; " but 
none acquired such skill as the Hebrews, and of them the Ben- 
jamitcs were most famous (Judg. xx. 16). When David was 
a ruddv youth, and went out to meet the tremendous Goliath 




336 



HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 



of Gath, the champion of the Philistines, he put on no armor 
but the simple equipment of a shepherd. " He took his staff in 
his hand, and chose him five smooth stones out of the brook, and 
put them in a shepherd's bag which he had, even in a scrip ; and 
his sling was in his hand " ( 1 Sam. xvii. 40) : but he returned 
to Jerusalem with the head of the Philistine. Pelations of the 
utmost confidence and attachment have always existed between 
the Oriental shepherd and his sheep, — as true of to-day as of 



t:^^> 




FAT-TAILED SHEEP. 



old. They are never driven, but led, by their faithful master, 
of whom it is literally true that " the sheep hear his voice : and 
he calleth his own sheep by name, and leadeth them out. And 
when he putteth forth his own sheep, he goeth before them, and 
the sheep follow him : for they know his voice. And a stranger 
will they not follow, but will flee from him ; for they know not 
the voice of strangers " (John x. 3-5). 

The curious breed of sheep peculiar to the East, known as 
the " broad-tailed," seems to have been the only species in exist- 
ence in Palestine, Persia, and Egypt, in the Mosaic period. Its 
distinctive feature is the immense mass of delicate fat Avhich 



FLOCKS AND HERDS. 337 

accumulates on each side of the caudal spine, and is highly 
esteemed in the composition of Oriental dishes. This broad-tail 
is usually about twenty pounds in weight ; but Van Lennep 
relates one instance in which that of a pampered pet sheep 
attamed to one hundred and ten pounds (!) after having been 
accidentally diminished to some extent ; and he had occasionally 
seen a pet sheep dragging about a toy ox-cart, on which some 
compassionate member of the family had fastened its tail, to 
relieve the poor animal of its excessive weight. 

Herodotus describes this species of sheep, having tails " one 
cubit in width" (eighteen inches), as common in Arabia and 
Syria over two thousand years ago. Aristotle makes a similar 
record of them ; and the bas-relief found among the ruins of 
Persepolis, the Persian capital, leaves no room for doubt as to 
their identity with the variety known to us. In the law for sac- 
rifices of sheep and lambs, the Hebrew word translated " rump " 
is identical with the Arabic liyeh, which applies only to the 
sheep's-tail fat, — a zoological fact with which the English trans- 
lators seem to have been unacquainted, or at least embarrassed 
(Lev. iii. 9). 

With the Jews the sheep was pre-eminently the animal of 
sacrifice, and as a symbol 

of meekness and innocence ^_ _ _ 

was Avell adapted to that _'^ ]zL "^^^^^^^^ 

devout use. In recogni- ^ 

tion of the mission of the __!au-J:-r 'r" S^^t^^lX''^^ -^ _^ 
Messiah, especially in refer- f^^^^^^^^t^^^^-^^ ^ =># 
ence to his one '• sacrifice ^^^^^^^^^^!|_a^3^ ri ^i\^^^ 
of himself," is Christ called ^^^^^^^^ - < ^^ ^ ^ ^ ^ 

" the Lamb of God," " the 
Lamb slain from the foun- 
dation of the world." a sheepfold. 

The sheepfolds of East- 
em countries were not simple enclosures, but walled struc- 
tures, having a low, narroAV doorway, always carefully guarded 
against thieves or Avild beasts : so Jesus warns his disciples. 




338 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

" Verily, verily, I say unto you. He that entereth not by 
the door into the sheepfold, but cHmbeth up some other 
way, the same is a thief and a robber. But he that enter- 
eth in by the door is the shepherd of the sheep " (John x. 
12). Old customs are so permanent in the East, that it is proba- 
ble that the ancient sheepfold, alluded to by our Lord, and even 
before his day, was like that of Syria in the present time, — a 
" low, flat building opening into a court, which is surrounded by 
a stone wall, protected on the top by layers of thorn-bushes. A 
door-way guards the entrance." In the yeaning season the 
shepherd leads his flock now, as in the remote past, to the fold 
at night, his own weary arms and rough cloak filled with the 
young lambs dropped by their dams during the day ; wet, per- 
haps, and famished, " giving his life for the sheep," he is all 
unconscious of the exalted part he fills in one of the most 
touchingly beautiful of the inspired portraits of the Redeemer : 
"He shall feed his flock like a shepherd: he shall gather the 
lambs with his arm, and carry them in his bosom, and shall gen- 
tly lead those that are with young" (Isa. xl. 11). As the sheep 
go in, one by one, through the low gateway, " passing under the 
rod," or the " hand " of the shepherd, he counts them, to know 
if any have been left out in the field or on the mountains. To 
" tithe " the flock, the rod was dipped in ochre, and every tenth 
sheep was touched, thus putting a mark upon it (Lev. xxvii. 32, 
and Jer. xxxii. 13). This expression, " passing under the rod," 
it will be seen, has no reference Avhatever to the wholesome 
chastisement of our heavenly Father, though it is so accounted 
in the popular sentiment. Natural caves in the earth Avere 
frequently used as folds, affording warmth and security. In 
remote and dangerous districts it was an ancient usage to erect 
towers for the protection of shepherds, as for the keepers of 
vineyards. It is recorded of Uzziah, king of Judah, that' " he 
built towers in the desert, and digged many wells: for he had 
much cattle both in the low country and in the plains " (2 Chron. 
xxvi. 10). 

FuU of marvellous and tender interest for us is the " Tower 



FLOCKS AND HERDS. 



339 



of Edar," beyond which Jacob " spread his tent," after he had 
buried the beloved Rachel in the way to Bethlehem (Gen. xxxv. 
21j, and which, some eight centuries later, we find alluded to 
by Micah as the " Tower of the Flock " (iv. 8). This watch- 
tower was near Bethlehem, on the road to Jerusalem, and was 
the station Avhere the shepherds, bringing their flocks from afar 
for the service of the Temple sacrifices, watched them by night. 




THE GOOD bHCPnERI 



and led them to the sanctuary as requii-ed. That this was a 
resting-place only for consecrated flocks, so to speak, is assured 
by an enactment of the Mishnah, which provided, that, " of all 
animals found as far from Jerusalem as Migdal Edet', and within 
that ck'cuit on every side, the males were offered as burnt- 
offerings, the females as peace-offerings ; " and the Rabbi Jehu- 
dah adds, •' If suited for Paschal sacrifices, then they are Paschal 



340 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

sacrifices, provided it shall be not more than thirty days before 
the feast." Thus it appears that those humble shepherds, 
visited by the angel and a multitude of the heavenly host (Luke 
ii. 8), and appointed to be the heralds and witnesses of the 
Saviour's birth, — " the Lamb of God who taketh away the sin 
of the world," — were on that very night keeping watch at this 
station over " those sacrifices which they off"ered year by year 
continually, but which could never " take away sins " (Heb. x. 
1, 4). It has been an objection to the traditional date of our 




SYRIAX GOAT. 



Lord's birth, that the rains of Palestine during the season corre- 
sponding to our December, would prevent the flocks from being 
" in the field " all night ; but this argument avails little when it 
is considered that these sheep were on their way to Jerusalem, 
and therefore not in the usual conditions of pasturage at that 
time of year. 

Goats were sometimes taken to pasture Avith flocks of sheep ; 
but their characteristics and proclivities were so entirely difl"erent 
from those of the sheep, that it was frequently necessary for the 
shepherd to " divide " one from the other, — a familiar rustic 
practice that our Lord employs as an illustration of his solemn 



FLOCKS AND HERDS. 



341 



judgment of the world : " When the Son of man shall come 
in his glory, and all the holy angels with him, then shall he sit 
upon the throne of his glory : and before him shall be gathered 
all nations : and he shall separate them one from another, as a 
shepherd divideth his sheep from the goats " (Matt. xxv. 32). 




,^HE ancient herdsman suffers by comparison with his 
"^ gentler fellow-laborer, the shepherd ; for we first hear of 
him in connection with quarrels about the possession 
of pasturage and wells, — an old and fruitful source of contention 
between owners of cattle : "A strife between the herdmen of 
Abram's cattle and the herdmen of Lot's cattle " (Gen. xiii. 7) ; 
and " the herdmen of Gerar did strive with Isaac's herdmen, say- 




FOUR-HORNED RAJ 



mg the water is ours " (Gen. xxvi. 20). In these days of the 
patriarchs the wealth of the Jewish nation consisted chiefly in 
cattle. It is recorded of Job, that " his substance also was seven 
thousand sheep, and three thousand camels, and five hundred yoke 
of oxen, and five hundred she asses, and a very great household " 
(i. 3). And when the Lord " turned the captivity " of the patri- 



:342 homp:-lifp: in the bible. 

arch, he gave liim " twice as much as he had before." Nabal had 
" three thousand sheep and a thousand goats " feedmg on Carmel ; 
and the merryraakmg of shearing-time was going on when David 
sent his ten young men on a pohte forage to the weahhy herd- 
owner's house (1 Sam. xxv. 4). Jacob, on his way from Padan- 
aram, Avith an- immense stock of cattle, sent a costly present to 
propitiate his brother Esau, consisting of " two hundred she 
goats and twenty he goats, two hundred ewes and twenty rams, 
thirty milch camels with their colts, forty kine and ten bulls, 
twenty she asses and ten foals" (Gen. xxxii. 14, 15). 

In a royal household the post of chief herdsman was one of 
dignity and distinction. Dorg, the faithful friend of the king, 
occupied this position in Saul's service (1 Sam. xxi. 7); and 
David's herdmasters, Shitrai and Shaphat, held a most responsi- 
ble place among his functionaries of state (1 Chron. xxvii. 29). 

In Solomon's charge to the possessor of these valuable domestic 
animals, he paints for our contemplation a charming little pastoral 
picture in the Book of Proverbs : " Be thou diligent to know the 
state of thy flocks, and look well to thy herds : for riches are not 
for ever : and doth the crown endure to every generation ? The 
hay appeareth, and the tender grass sheweth itself, and herbs of 
the mountains are gathered. The lambs are for thy clothing, 
and the goats are the price of the field. And thou shalt have 
goats' milk enough for thy food, for the food of thy household, 
and for the maintenance of thy maidens " (xxvii. 23-27). 

The ox was without doubt the most valuable possession of the 
ancient agriculturist and herdsman, Avhether we consider its uses 
as a beast of burden or in field-labor — ploughing, threshing, 
and treading out the grain ; or in the household provision of 
milk, butter, and cheese, and finally in the conversion of its flesh, 
into food. Oxen were also choice ofi"erings for sacrifice, though 
it was common, both for the altar and the family table, to select 
the young animal, — the bullock, heifer, or calf. 

The ancient monuments of Egypt represent the ox of that coun- 
try as a superb animal of great beauty and strength. The peo- 
ple depended upon him in the tillage of their fields, and testified 



FLOCKS AND HERDS. 345 

their appreciation of his vakie by offering him worship under the 
name Apis. A special breed, preserved with the greatest care, 
was set apart, from which to select objects for this devotion ; and 
at death these were embalmed and mourned with national honors. 
The Hebrews, during their two centuries' sojourn in Egypt, evi- 
dentlv became somewhat tainted with this idolatrous practice ; for 
they were scarcely delivered from their cruel oppressors before 
they constrained Aaron to make them a golden calf, that they 
might offer it the Egyptian rites of worship. The Egyptian office 
of superintendent of the herds, says Wilkinson, was " a high 
and distinguished post, being held by persons of rank belonging 
to the priestly and military classes, who were called ' superintends 
of the cattle of the king,' or of ' some god.' " 

East of the Jordan vast herds of cattle grazed through the entire 
year, driven from place to place as the pasture was exhausted. 
In Western Palestine this was not always possible, owing to 
variety of surface and climate. Cattle were fed with barley or 
with a mixture of chopped straw, barley, and beans, the " prov- 
ender " or the torn " straw" left by the threshing-machine : " The 
oxen likewise and the young asses that ear the ground shall eat 
clean provender, which hath been winnowed with the shovel and 
with the fan" (Isa. xxx. 24). In more thickly populated dis- 
tricts the oxen were stall-fed for the table : " Better is a dinner 
of herbs where love is, than a stalled ox and hatred therewith " 
(Prov. XV. 17). And in the daily supply for Solomon's household 
a distinction is made between the " ten fat oxen " and the 
"twenty oxen out of the pastures" (1 Kings iv. 23). Among 
several enactments in the law for oxen and other cattle, there is 
one peculiarly interesting, in which the ox is apparently held ac- 
countable for his iniquity and punished with death : " If an ox 
gore a man or a woman, that they die : then the ox shall be surely 
stoned, and his flesh shall not be eaten ; but the owner of the 
ox shall be quit" (Exod, xxi. 28). Among "the cattle on a 
thousand hills " David specifies the " strong bulls of Bashan " for 
our terrified admiration (Ps. xxii. 12), — in the words of the 
prophet, the " fatlings of Bashan" (Ezek. xxxix. 18). The uni- 



346 



HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 



corn, so frequently referred to in the Old Testament, is supposed 
to have been a very large and powerful wild ox, to which Pliny 
gave the name of urus, and Csesar describes as '• the gigantic 
ox of the Hercynian forest, in stature scarcely below an elephant, 
and of indomitable ferocity." The Assyrian sculptures represent 
this truly formidable animal as pursued by royal and noble 
hunters. 

The camel and the ass have perhaps the earliest mention in the 
Bible as domesticated animals brought into complete subjection 
to the pleasures or necessities of man. The camel is commonly 
enumerated among the possessions of wealthy patriarchs and 
kings. We have seen, for instance, that Job had six thousand 
camels when the Lord blessed him after his great trial. Isaac, 

Jacob, David, all had a 
large number of these 
most use f u 1 burden- 
bearers, which were 
trained for the convey- 
ance of merchandise 
on long caravan routes, 
or for personal conven- 
ience in making jour- 
neys of considerable 
distance. It Avas to a 
" company of Ishmael- 
ites," which " came from Gilead with their camels bearing 
spicery, and balm, and myrrh, going to carry it down to Egypt," 
that Joseph was sold by his brethren (Gen. xxxvii. 25, 28). Ile- 
bekah and Rachel travelled on camels (Gen. xxiv. 6-4 ; xxxi. 34) ; 
and the queen of Sheba, on her visit to Solomon, " came to Jeru- 
salem with a very great train, with camels that bare spices, and 
very much gold, and precious stones" (1 Kings x. 2). It Avas 
customary for the wealthy to adorn their favorite camels with rich 
trappings, with bells and chains and collars, and pendent orna- 
ments of gold or silver. When Gideon slew the two kings of 
Midian, he " took away the ornaments that were on their camels' 




CAMELS EQUIPPED FOR THE DESERT. 



FLOCKS AND HERDS. 



349 



necks" (Judg. viii. 21). The flesh and milk of the camel were 
used for food, but not by the Hebrew, to whom it was prohib- 
ited : " The camel, because he cheweth the cud, but divideth not 
the hoof; he is unclean unto you" 
(Lev. xi. 4). 

There is little doubt that the ass 
superseded the camel for daily use 
in Eastern households. It is men- 
tioned as early as Abraham's time, 
and throughout the Bible appears as 
a most esteemed possession, equally 
essential to the wealthy, who owned 
large herds, as to the poor man, who 
looked, perhaps, to his one she-ass 
for the support, by her labor and her 
milk, of his family. In describing 
the desperately wicked, the wretched 
patriarch Avrites, '• They drive away 
the ass of the fatherless, they take 
the widow's ox for a pledge " (Job 
xxiv. 3) ; while they themselves he 
compares to the " wild asses in the 
desert," swift and eager in their work 
of destruction. Besides the common 
animal, subsisting on the coarsest 
food, and subjected to the meanest 
drudgery, there were finer breeds of 
the ass monopohzed by the wealthy 
for the saddle ; while the milk of the 
female was highly esteemed as an 
article of diet, as Avell as for medici- 
nal purposes. In ancient Palestine 
ladies preferred these finer asses for 

riding, whether in saddle or in the litters carried by them. When 
the Shunamite's son lay dead in the same " little chamber on the 
wall " she had made for Elisha, that he might " turn in thither," 




350 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

'' she called unto her husband, and said, Send me, I pray thee, 
one of the young men, and one of the asses, that I may run to 
the man of God, and come agahi. . . . Then she saddled an ass, 
and said to her servant. Drive, and go forw^ard; slack not thy 
riding for me, except I bid thee " (2 Kings iv. 22, 24). Abigail, 
wife of the churlish Nabal, " rode on the ass," as she carried her 
present to David (1 Sam. xxv. 20); Jair, one of the judges of 
Israel, had '• thirty sons that rode on thirty ass-colts ; " Abdon, 
another, had '• forty sons and thirty nephews, that rode on three- 
score and ten ass-colts ; " while Deborah sings of the high func- 
tionaries themselves as " ye that ride on white asses " (Judg. 
X. 4 ; xii. 14 ; v. 10). The silvery-white ass was especially 
esteemed ; but the ordinary color of the animal, as mentioned in 
Scripture, is expressed by its Hebrew name, signifying red. 

The Avild ass was a beautiful, deer-like creature, marvellously 
fleet and spirited. Its flesh was "unclean'" to the Jews, but 
much preferred by their Oriental neighbors, as well as by the 
Greeks and Romans. The Assyrian sculptures represent the 
ancient chase of this ass of the desert, which is described by 
Xenophon as pursued by relays of hounds, since no pionnted 
horseman could hope to overtake it. 

The mule is represented on the ancient monuments of Egypt, 
but seems not to have been known to the Israelites until the 
time of David. There is an early mention of this animal in the 
Bible, where Anah " found mules in the wilderness, as he fed 
the asses of Gibeon, his father" (Gen. xxxvi. 24) ; but the word 
rendered "mules" in this text is considered a gross mistransla- 
tion. It is certain that the mule had become fashionable for 
saddle-use in David's reign ; for, after the murder of Amnon by 
order of his brother Absalom, it is recorded that " all the king's 
sons arose, and every man gat him up upon his nude, and 
fled " (2 Sam. xiii. 29). And the guilty " Absalom rode upon a 
mule," which was made the instrument of his death ; for the 
mule went under the " thick boughs of a great oak, and his 
head caught hold of the oak, and he was taken up between the 
heaven and the earth ; and the nude that was under him went 



5/' 



i; M 



v 
xr - 

XT 



.^. 





FLOCKS AND HERDS. 353 

away " (2 Sam. xviii. 9). Henceforward this valuable animal is 
often mentioned in connection with the horse. The greatly im- 
poverished remnant of Israel that returned from their captivity 
in Babylon to the ruins of Jerusalem brought with them two 
hundred and forty-five mules (Neh. vii. 68). An Assyrian sculp- 
ture represents two women riding astride on a mule. The value 
of a white mule in the East at the present day is three or four 
times greater than that of an ordinary horse. 

The horse, now so thoroughbred and so highly prized in the 
East, seems not to have been known in the history of the Jews 
before the reign of Solomon. Of this monarch, it is recorded 
that he had " twelve thousand horsemen ; " also that " Solomon 
had horses brought out of Egypt," — "a horse for a hundred and 
fifty shekels of silver," — not only for himself, but for "the 
kings of the Hittites and for the kings of Syria" (1 Kings x. 26, 
28,\>9). 

The first indirect allusion to the horse in the Bible is found in 
the prophetic benediction of the patriarch Jacob, dying in the 
land of Egypt : '• Dan shall be a serpent by the way, an adder in 
the path, that biteth the horse heels, so that his rider shall fall 
backward" (Gen. xlix. 17). And, as this valuable creature begins 
to appear on Egyptian monuments only a short time previous to 
this date, it is certain that it was not very common even then ; 
still, the imposing funeral procession, following the patriarch's 
remains to Canaan, consisted in part of " chariots and horsemen" 
(Gen. 1. 9). 

Allusions to the horse in the Scriptures are almost exclusively 
in connection with his participation in battles. The famous poem 
in the Book of Job is to the war-horse of that rude time : " Hast 
thou given the horse strength ? hast thou clothed his neck with 
thunder? Canst thou make him afraid as a grasshopper? the 
glory of his nostrils is terrible. He paweth in the valley, and 
rejoiceth in his strength : he goeth on to meet the armed men. 
He mocketh at fear, and is not affrighted ; neither turneth he 
back from the sword. The quiver rattleth against him, the 
glittering spear and the shield. He swalloweth the ground Avitli 



354 



HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 



fierceness and rage : neither believeth he that it is the sound of 
the trumpet. He saith among the trumpets, Ha, ha! and he 
smelleth the battle afar off, the thunder of the captains, and the 
shouting" (Job. xxxix. 19-25). Solomon speaks of the same 
formidable foe as the horse " prepared 
against the day of battle" (Prov. xxi. 
31); such the horses "swifter than 
eagles," and he that " rusheth into the 
battle," described by the prophet (Jer, 
iv. 13 ; viii. 16) ; and those " swifter 
than the leopards, and more fierce than 
the evening wolves " (Hab. i. 8). 

That chariots drawn by horses formed 
an important part of the martial equip- 
ment of the Egyptians is learned from 
the record of the Exodus, where the 
Israelites were pursued by Pharaoh's 
" six hundred chosen chariots, and all 
the chariots of Egypt " (Exod. xiv. 7). 
The Assyrians and Babylonians, Syrians 
and Philistines, made use of chariots 
and cavalry in war. David was the 
first to introduce them into Hebrew war- 
fare, contrary to the divine command 
to the king of the Jews, which was de- 
signed to prevent a renewal of national 
relations with the idolatrous race from 
which they had been delivered by a 
mighty Hand: "He shall not multiply 
horses to himself, nor cause the people 
to return to Egypt, to the end that 
he should multiply horses : forasmuch as the Lord hath said 
unto you. Ye shall henceforth return no more that way" (Deut. 
xvii. 16). 

The sacred historian records that the heroic Josiah, king of 
Israel, in his eff"ort thoroughly to purge the land of the idolatrous 




FLOCKS AND HERDS. 355 

practices into Avliich it had fallen, " took away the horses that 
the kings of Judah had given to the sun, . . . and burned the 
chariots of the sun with fire" (2 Kings xxiii. 11). This passage 
points to the ancient Persian custom of dedicating a chariot and 
horses to the sun, adopted by the backslidden Israelites. Rep- 
resentations of Italian Avomen, riding sidewise upon horses, are 
to be seen on Etruscan vases, in the museum of Naples, older 
than the foundation of Rome (B.C. 752); showing that our 
extant fashion is by no means so modern as is generally believed. 
The ancient trappings of horses, as preserved in the sculptures 
of Nineveh and Egypt, appear to be almost identical with those 
of the present day ; but the saddle varied in every country, and 
it seems never to have been the practice to shoe the horse. 
Isaiah says of the executors of God's judgments, " Their horses' 
hoofs shall be counted lil^e flint " (v. 28). 



j3»IIE foregoing consideration of the conditions of ancient 
agricultural and pastoral life in Bible lands, necessarily 
brief and condensed, must not be brought to a conclusion 
without some reference to one of the most important concerns of 
them that had the charge of large flocks and herds. A well of 
water, digged deep, and floAving perennially from the limestone- 
rock, was a possession absolutely priceless in a dry, hot country ; 
and therefore it was a fruitful source of quarrels and even conflicts 
between rival shepherds and herdsmen. Eor this reason villages 
Avere built sufficiently near to a Avell or spring for the public 
convenience, but not so near as to be seriously annoyed by the 
dust consequent upon the daily gathering of the flocks to be 
watered, and the noisy bickering, not to say strife, of their 
masters. AVells were commonly approached by flights of steps, 
which the women descended to dip their pitchers into the water, 
and ascended to return to their homes ; otherwise, when the 
well Avas deep, a rope was fastened to a leathern bucket or 
earthen jar, which Avas let down either by a simple pulley, or by 
merely sliding the rope over the stone curb of the Avell. The 




356 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

ancient wells of Beersheba on the southern borderland of Ca- 
naan, digged by Abraham (Gen, xxi. 31), still furnish water to 
the Arab herdsmen and women, Avho all day long draw and fill 
the troughs for their cattle, as in the patriarchal period of Bible 
history. " In four thousand years the ropes of these drawers of 
water have worn furrows in the face of the stones, some of them 
over four inches deep." 

Jacob's Well, on which Jesus sat, " being wearied with his 
journey," and talked with the woman of Samaria, who asked 
him, perhaps in amazement, probably in scorn, because of the 
deep-rooted prejudice between Jew and Samaritan, " Art thou 
greater than our father Jacob, which gave us the well, and drank 
thereof himself, and his children, and his cattle? (John iv. 12) 
is one of the few localities positively identified by Orientals of 
whatever creed. It is situate a mile and a half from the ancient 
city of Shechem, where Jacob, after parting in peace from his 
brother Esau, "-bought a parcel of a field where he had spread 
his tent" (Gen. xxxiii. 19). 

It was customary to cover the mouths of wells with heavy 
stones to protect them from the shifting sands that would soon 
choke the water-supply. At morning and evening the Avomen 
of all ranks in the primitive age went with their pitchers or jars 
to carry water for household use, while the shepherds and herds- 
men brought their flocks for watering. These customs are ad- 
mirably illustrated in the story of Eliezer, Abraham's servant, in 
search of a wife for his master's son Isaac : " He made his camels 
to kneel down without the city by a well of water at the time 
of the evening, even the time that Avomen go out to draw 
water." And, when the fair Rebekah came " with her pitcher 
upon her shoulder," " she went down to the well, and filled her 
pitcher, and came up. And the servant ran to meet her, and 
said. Let me, I pray thee, drink a little water of thy pitcher. 
And she said. Drink, my lord : and she hasted, and let down her 
pitcher upon her hand, and gave him drink. And when she 
had done giving him drink, she said, I will draw water for thy 
camels also, until they have done drinking. And she hasted. 



I Ill 




WkA 



% 



if 

vii||l|> 



FLOCKS AND HERDS. 359 

and emptied her pitcher into the trough, and ran again unto 
the well to draw water, and drew for all his camels (Gen. xxxiv. 
11, 16-20). 

Another well of the Bible is responsible for a patriarchal love- 
match, — the well of Haran, where Jacob tarried to rest on his 
journey, and to inquire concerning his mother's kindred : " While 
he yet spake Avith them, Rachel came with her father's sheep . 
for she kept them." To water her flock, Jacob " rolled the stone 
from the well's mouth," kissed Rachel's, and " lifted up his voice 
and wept," teUing her who he vv^as, — a charming pastoral, that 
prepares us for the inevitable conclusion : " And Jacob served 
seven years for Rachel ; and they seemed unto him but a few 
days, for the love he had to her" (Gen. xxiv. 9-11, 20). 

Another means for providing a plentiful supply of water in a 
country where rain fell to excess in Avinter, and scarcely at all in 
summer, Avas the construction of cisterns. Palestine abounded 
in cisterns of all sorts long prior to the settlement of the Israel- 
ites in their promised land. The remains of these are found 
to-day, not only m tOAvns and villages, but in remote Avildernesses. 
Some Avere formed by merely excavating the earth, and lining it 
Avith wood or cement ; others Avere large tanks or reservoirs, 
covered or roofed, into Avhich the Avater Avas conducted. A door 
in the side of the structure opened upon a flight of steps that 
reached to the bottom of the tank, so that, however Ioav the 
Avater, it Avas ahvays accessible. Others were hoAvn in the rock 
with excessive labor, and even decorated elaborately. 

When these pits became empty, except for the tenacious and 
noisome mke at the bottom, they Avere used as dungeons and 
places of cruel torture. It is supposed that Joseph Avas throAvn 
into such a dry cistern by his brethren : " They took him and 
cast him into a pit : and the pit Avas empty, there Avas no Avater in 
it" (Gen. xxxA'ii. 24). Thus Jeremiah Avas cast into a pit " that 
was in the court of the prison : and they let doAvn Jeremiah with 
cords. And in the dungeon there Avas no water, but mire : so Jer- 
emiah sunk in the mire " (xxxviii. 6). This prophet is the author 
of that touchmg figure Avherein the Almighty laments the back- 



360 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

sliding of Israel : " My people have committed two evils ; they 
have forsaken me the fountain of living waters, and hewed them 
out cisterns, broken cisterns, that can hold no water" (Jer. 
ii. 13). And Solomon, urging upon his "son "the exercise of 
both self-restraint and benevolence, employs a similar illustra- 
tion : " Drink waters out of thine own cistern, and runnmg 
waters out of thine own well. Let thy fountains be dispersed 
abroad, and rivers of water in the streets " (Prov. v. 15). Some 
of the Eastern cisterns are of immense size. One is described by 
a recent traveller as six hundred and sixty feet long by two 
hundred and seventy wide ; and another, in Northern Syria, is 
over one hundred feet in depth and breadth. The cistern under 
the Temple platform in Jerusalem is very extensive, though not 
so deep as the one last mentioned. It is hewn from " the native 
rock, portions being left here and there, as rude pillars, to support 
the roof." A very ancient form of cistern Avas a circular shaft, 
tunnelled to the slanting depth of one hundred or one hundred 
and fifty feet, and enclosing a flight of steps. So generously was 
Jerusalem supplied with these wells and cisterns, that, during 
the many sieges she was called upon to endure, her citizens 
never suffered for lack of water. 

It was very common in cities for private householders to have 
a cistern in the courtyard. When such cisterns become dry, they 
make excellent storerooms, or hiding-places for fugitives. The 
mouth being on a level with the ground, it was easy to cover 
it so as to hide it. In such a cistern the two servants of David 
were hidden in Bahurim, near Jerusalem, at the time of Absa- 
lom's rebellious conspiracy against the throne. " They went both 
of them away quickly, and came to a man's house in Bahurim, 
which had a well in his court ; whither they went down. And 
the woman took and spread a covering over the well's mouth, 
and spread ground corn thereon ; and the thing was not known " 
(2 Sam. xvii. 18, 19). 

Palestine was also rich in perpetual springs or fountains, espe- 
cially on either side of the Jordan, where there are noAV hun- 
dreds of such springs, many of them strongly impregnated with 



FLOCKS AND HERDS. 



363 



medicinal properties. The Scriptures abound in spiritual allu- 
sions to these springs of living waters; to the " water brooks " 
and the " still waters ; " to the " fountain opened to the house 
of David for sin and uncleanness," " a spring shut up, a fountain 




' AS THE HART PANTETH AFTER THE WATER BROOKS." 



sealed ; " to a fountain that " shall come forth of the house of the 
Lord ; " to the " living fountains of waters." 

In view of all the illustrations and suggestions afforded to a 
devout mind by the phase of life we have been considering, it 
seems appropriate in closing to sum them up in the inspired 



364 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

words of the prophet Habakkuk : " Although the fig tree shall 
not blossom, neither shall fruit be in the vines ; the labour of the 
olive shall fail, and the fields shall yield no meat ; the flock shall 
be cut ofl" from the fold, and there shall be no herd in the stalls : 
yet I will rejoice in the Lord, I will joy in the God of my sal- 
vation" (iii. 17, 18); and in the immortal song of the sweet 
Psalmist of Israel, expressing the same exalted spirit of an immu- 
table confidence : " The Lord is my shepherd ; I shall not want. 
He maketh me to lie down in green pastures : he leadeth me 
beside the still waters. He restoreth my soul : he leadeth me in 
the paths of righteousness for his name's sake. Yea, though I 
walk through the valley of the shadow of death, I will fear no 
evil : for thou art with me ; thy rod and thy staff they comfort 
me. Thou preparest a table before me in the presence of mine 
enemies : thou anointest my head with oil ; my cup runneth 
over. Surely goodness and mercy shall follow me all the days 
of my life : and I will dwell in the house of the Lord for ever " 
(Ps. xxiii. 1-6). 



XV. 



jSioknuss and death. 




HE medical art is seldom alluded to in the early Bib- 
lical records of the Jewish nation, from which fact we 
may infer favorably for the general hygiene of that 
people, as well as from our knowledge of their Mosaic 
code, which provided as wisely for the physical as for the 
moral well-being of its faithful followers. Much also was 
due to their mode of life in the patriarchal period, simplicity of 
diet, scrupulous cleanliness, continual contact Avith the open air, 
complete exemption from all excesses and excitements. The 
climate of the Bible lands, 
moreover, is one of the most 
wholesome in the Avorld, and 
most conducive to longevity ; so 
that sickness and premature 
death came to be popularly re- 
garded as a direct visitation of 
God in punishment of sin. The 
question of the disciples con- 
cerning the '■ man which Avas 
blind from his birth," " Master, 
Avho did sin, this man, or his 
parents, that he Avas born 
blind 1 " (John ix. 1 , 2) is an 

extraordinary expression of this belief; for it admitted the pos- 
sibility of pre-natal transgression. Health and long life were 
expected as blessings promised in roAvard to the faithful keeping 
of the laAv. as it Avas Avritten : "I Avill take sickness away from 




THE HEALED WATERS OF JERICHO. 



'366 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

the midst of thee. . . . The number of thy days I will fulfil" 
(Exod. xxiii. 25, 26). David expresses the sentiment and ex- 
perience of his generation in the familiar words, " The days 
of our years are threescore years and ten ; and if by reason of 
strength they be fourscore years, yet is their strength labour 
and sorrow ; for it is soon cut off, and we fly away " (Ps. xc. 10). 
But we go back to the primeval age of his people for those won- 
derful instances of protracted years which we are scarcely dis- 
posed to accept as facts when tried by our present chronology, — 
the two hundred and five years of Terah, the one hundred and 
seventy-five years of his son Abraham, the one hundred and 
eighty of Isaac, and the one hundred and forty-seven of Jacob ; 
while Moses died at one hundred and twenty years, " his eye 
not yet being dim with age, nor his natural force abated." 

In the later days of the Habbis, to die within fifty years of age 
was to be " cut off; " within fifty-two, to " die the death of Sam- 
uel the prophet;" at sixty, it Avas a " death at the hands of 
Heaven;" at seventy, as that "of an old man;" and at eighty, 
as that, in the words of the Psalmist, " of strength." The Rabbis, 
as demonstrators of the law, were keen observers of sanitary 
precautions ; and no doubt the words of the son of Sirach wor- 
thily expressed their estimation of the blessing he extols : " Health 
and good estate of body are above all gold. . . . Death is bet- 
ter than a bitter life or continual sickness. . . . Excess of meats 
bringeth sickness, and surfeiting will turn into chol.er. By sur- 
feiting have many perished ; but he that taketh heed prolongeth 
his life" (Ecclus. xxx. 15, 17; xxxvii. 30, 31). 

The art of healing, though not brought to any degree of per- 
fection, was undoubtedly cultivated in Israel ; birt, as in every 
other human agency under the theocracy, the people were 
warned against putting their trust in an arm of flesh ; thus the 
sin of Asa is rebuked for all time in sacred history, that " in his 
disease he sought not to the Lord, but to the physicians " (2 
Chron. xvi. 12). It must be inferred that the Jews derived some 
knowledge of the practice of medicine from Egypt in that early 
epoch of their history, since one of their laws in Exodus pro- 



SICKNESS AND DEATH. 367 

vides that if one man hurt another, so that " he die not, but 
keepeth his bed " for a while, the offender shall be quit ; " only 
he shall pay for the loss of his time, and cause him to be thor- 




ANCIFIN i bUN DI VL'5 



oughly healed" (xxi. 19). In the case of Hezekiah, the pious 
king of Judah, when he Avas " sick unto death," it seems that it 
was not unusual for a prophet to give medical advice : " Isaiah 



368 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

had said, Let them take a lump of figs, and lay it for a plaster 
upon the boil, and he shall recover" (Isa. xxxviii. 21). While 
in the exercise of his spiritual function, he procured a miraculous 
assurance of his royal patient's recovery : " This sign shalt thou 
have of the Lord, that the Lord will do the thing that he hath 
spoken: ... and he brought the shadow ten degrees backward, 
by Avhich it had gone down in the dial of Ahaz " (2 Kings xx. 

9, II)- 

The estimation in which a physician was held, as a mere in- 
strument in God's hands for the public weal, is set forth in a 
ciuiously interesting homily in the Apocrypha : '■ Honor a phy- 
sician with the honor due unto him for the uses which ye may 
have of him: for the Lord hath created him. For of the Most 
High Cometh healing. The Lord hath created medicines out of 
the earth ; and he that is wise will not abhor them. He hath 
given man skill that he might be honored in his marvellous 
works. My son, in thy sickness be not negligent ; but pray unto 
the Lord, and he will make thee whole. Then give place to the 
physician, for the Lord hath created him : let him not go from 
thee, for thou hast need of him. There is a time Avhen in their 
hands there is good success ; for they shall also pray unto the 
Lord, that he would prosper that which they give for ease and 
remedy to prolong life. He that sinneth before his Maker, let 
him fall into the hand of the physician " (Ecclus. xxxviii.). 

Among ancient nations Egypt was pre-eminently the seat of 
medical science. Its pursuit was encouraged and controlled by 
government, and a strict accountability required of practitioners, 
Avho Avere, almost without exception, specialists. Pliny informs 
us that post-mortem examinations were first made in Egypt in 
the prosecution of inquiry into the hidden causes of fatal disease, 
— an advantage that LIcbrcw students could not employ, on 
account of the ceremonial pollution of contact with a dead body. 
Herodotus declares that the great conquerors, C'yrus and Darius, 
depended for their court-physicians upon Egypt, the therapeutic 
skill of their own lands being altogether insignificant. 

Jeremiah, prophesying the overthroAA- of Pharaoh's army at 



SICKNESS AND DEATH. 369 

the Euphrates, refers to the materia medlca of Egypt : " Go up 
into Gilead, and take bahn, O virgin, the daughter of Egypt : in 
vain shalt thou use many medicines ; for thou shalt not be 
cured" (xlvi. 11); and again to one of the most esteemed of 
Oriental remedies, the famous balsam, that constituted so impor- 
tant an article of commerce among Eastern nations that Roman 
generals thought it Avorthy to form part of the. spoils of their 
foreign conquests ; and which, according to Josephus, was intro- 
duced to Judeea by the queen of Sheba among the precious gifts 
she brought to Solomon : " Is there no balm in Gilead 1 is there 
no physician there 1 why then is not the health of the daughter 
of my people recovered 1 " (viii. 22). Medical practice seems to 
have been mainly hygienic ; though the ancients were disposed to 
bring to their aid the occult sciences in conjunction with their 
simple vegetable prescriptions, external ointments and lotions of 
oil and wine, and the careful diet imposed during the progress 
of disease. The Rabbis did not disdain to adopt the medical 
profession ; and they ordained that every town should have its 
physician and surgeon ; for all this, there were not wanting in 
that age caustic proverbs of a spirit not foreign to this: " Physi- 
cian, heal thyself," is a genuine Jewish proverb, and "The best 
among doctors deserves Gehenna," the ungrateful sentiment of 
those patients, who, then as now, Avere exacting in proportion to 
their ignorance. Among the regular oflttcial staff on duty in 
the Temple was a physician to minister to the priesthood. In 
later days it Avas customary to have prayers offered in the syna- 
gogue for a person Avho Avas very ill, under the " ncAV name,". 
AA'hich by significant usage the sufferer assumed, thus making him 
'•'• another man, a noAV creature, and like a child born to a good 
life and length of days." This extract from a Rabbinical prayer 
for the dying, is peculiarly suggestive to the Christian reader 
of the "ncAv name" promised to "him that overcometh" (Rev. 
ii. 17). It Avas also customary to anoint the sick with a lotion of 
oil, Avine, and Avater, Avhich might be prepared even on the 
sabbath, as indicated by St. James : " Is any sick among you ? 
Let him call for the elders of the Church, and let them pray 



370 homp:-life in the bible. 

over him, anointing him with oil in the name of the Lord" 
(v. 14). 

Visits to the sick were accounted among the most sacred 
obligations. Maimonides, the great Jewish doctor, held that 
this act of charity takes precedence of all others ; and the 
Talmud goes still farther when it asserts that " whoever visits 




"GO, WASH IN THE POOL OF SILOAM!'' 

the sick shall deliver his soul from Gehenna," while, on the part 
of the afflicted, we are assured that the visitor relieves him of 
" one-sixtieth part of his sufferings." 

" All manner of sickness and all manner of disease " is freely 
spoken of in the New Testament in connection with the gracious 
ministry of our Lord, who " went about all Galilee," teaching, 



SICKNESS AND DP^ATH. 371 

preaching, and healing. Everywhere we behold him, followed, 
crowded, with the sick and those who carried them, — the pal- 
sied, the dropsical, the blind, the lame, the deaf and dumb, the 
lepers, those consumed with fevers, the impotent, the possessed 
of de\ils, the paralyzed. Perhaps the majority of these suffer- 
ers wore like the woman " which had spent all her living upon 
physicians, neither could be healed of any" (Luke viii. 4:3) ; and 
who might, Avith Job, have said to them, " Ye are all physicians 
of no value " (xiii. 4). How full of new hope to these, the 
news of this great Physician, visiting their towns and villages, 
who, with a word or a touch, restored to perfect health ! " He 
cast out the spirits with his word, and healed all that were sick : 
that it might be fulfilled which was sj)oken by Esaias the prophet, 
saying, Himself took our infirmities, and bare our sicknesses " 
(Matt. viii. 16, 17). Nor would we forget his humble disciple, 
" Luke, the beloved physician," — as St. Paul calls him, writing 
to the Colossians, — who, as indicated by his writings, was edu- 
cated among the polite and cultivated Greeks of Asia ; but who, 
called of God to become a missionary of the cross, and a scribe 
" instructed to the kingdom," abandoned his profession for that 
exalted work. 



^1^ [iJ^HE Bible story of the death of the patriarch Jacob, 
(^5 ^^ brought into Egypt with all his family by his son Joseph, 
^^ cs^ gives us with remarkable detail the customs surrounding 
the final scenes in the life of the head of a family. The assem- 
bling of the members of the immediate household about the death- 
bed ; the laying of the paternal blessing upon each, beginning 
with the first-born; the " gathering up" of the feet into the bed 
at the last breath ; the closing of the eyes, and the kiss ; offices 
delegated to the nearest and dearest of kin, — all these compose 
an impressive picture of a great solemnity (Gen. xlix.). In the 
case of Jacob, it was the beloved and long-mourned Joseph who 
fell upon his dead " father's face, and wept upon him, and kissed 
liim." even as the Lord had promised the patriarch '' in the 



372 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

visions of the night" at Beersheba, when on his way to Egypt: 
" Joseph shall put his hand upon thine eyes " (Gen. xlvi. 4). 

In the spirit of this remotely ancient custom, the Jew of 
Rabbinical times, finding himself near his end, invited at least 
ten persons to hear his general confession. He asked pardon of 
all whom he had offended, receiving the blessing of his own 
parents if living, and bestowing his benediction upon his children 
and dependents. 

According to Rabbinical tradition, there were nine hundred 
and three different sorts of dying. The most painful of these was 
compared to '^ tearing out a thread from a piece of wool ; " the 
sweet and almost imperceptible passing away of the spirit, com- 
pared to drawing a hair out of milk, was called " death by a 
kiss." Aaron and Moses are said to have died " according to 
the word," — literally, "by the mouth of Jehovah." Certain 
superstitions prevailed as to the duration of the fatal illness, and 
as to the manner and posture of the dying. To die with a smile 
irradiating the countenance, or with the eyes looking upward, 
was a happy omen ; while to look down, to be alarmed, or even 
to turn the face to the wall, was construed as a sign of evil. 
The actual dissolution of the sick person was followed by those 
extravagant demonstrations of grief common to the Orientals, 
the female members of the family announcing the death to the 
neighborhood by shrill and piercing cries rising above all the 
din of the city. It is to be supposed that in the early life of 
the Hebrew nation the funeral observances were characterized 
by great simplicity ; but in a later day these partook of the 
prevailing luxuries of a higher civilization, and extended even 
to costly wrappings for the dead body. A reform in this par- 
ticular was introduced by the Rabbi Gamaliel, at whose feet St. 
Paul sat as a pupil, who directed that he should be buried in 
plain linen garments. His grandson went even beyond this, and 
limited the number of garments to one, and that of the simplest 
and cheapest linen, poetically known as the " travelling-dress." 

Reference is made in the New Testament to these details. At 
the mu-aculous raising of Lazarus, when Jesus " cried with a 



SICKNESS AND DEATH. 



373 






loud voice, Lazarus, come forth," it is written, " And he that 
was dead came forth, hound hand and foot with graveclothes ; 
and his face was bound about with a napkin. 
Jesus saith unto them. Loose him, and let him 
go" (John xi. 44). It is supposed in this case 
that the grave-clothes consisted of separate wrap- 
pings of each limb, as was customary in Egypt. 
In the burial of Ananias mention is made of a 
less complicated form of this mode of dressing 
the corpse : " The young men arose, wound him 
up, and carried him out" (Acts v. 6). So unpre- 
tentious were the preparations for the funeral of 
Dorcas — the benevolent disciple in Joppa, 
whose extensive charities may justify us in the 
supposition that she was a woman of means — 
that it is simply said of her, " She was sick, and 
died : Avhora when they had washed, they laid 
in an upper chamber " (Acts ix. 37). Our Lord's 
funeral rites afford, perhaps, a better example 
of the '• manner of the Jews to bury." Joseph, 
" a rich man of Arimathea," " took the body 
of Jesus. And there came also Nicodemus, 
(which at the first came to Jesus by night,) and 
brought a mixture of myrrh and aloes, about a 
hundred pound Aveight. Then took they the 
body of Jesus, and wound it in linen clothes 
Avith the spices " (John xix. 38-40). 

In the other Gospel accounts of this precious 
death and burial, there is no mention of the use 
of spices at the hurried temporary sepulture ; 
only that the body was " wrapped in linen," a 
" clean linen cloth," Avhile the women " prepared 
spices and ointments " to be used as soon as 
the sabbath Avas past, and brought them to 
"anoint him" on the morning of the resurrec- 
tion. St. Peter, it is Avritten, " Avent into the sepulchre, and 




374 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

seetli the linen clothes lie, and the napkin, that was about his 
head, not lying with the linen clothes, but wrapped together in a 
place by itself" (John xx. 6, 7). 

This must have been an ancient mode of burial in reference 
to the lavish use of spices, and one not altogether unworthy of 
a king. Wc read of Asa, king of Judah, nine centuries before 
Christ, that " they buried him in his own sepulchres, which he 
had made for himself in the city of David, and laid him in the 
bed which was filled with SAveet odours and divers kinds of 
spices prepared by the apothecaries' art : and they made a very 
great burning for him" (2 Chron. xvi. 14). 

Some commentators discover in this text, and others where 
" burnings " are mentioned, proof of the practice of cremation by 
the Jews. If this heathenish custom, as practised by the Greeks 
and Romans, ever did exist among them, it is certain that the 
national sentiment with regard to it underwent material change 
at different epochs of Jewish history. It is inferred from Judah's 
sentence upon Tamar — " Bring her forth, and let her be burnt" 
(Gen. xxxix. 24), — a punishment involving the greatest indig- 
nity — that the ancient Hebrews held the burning of a body in 
the utmost abhorrence ; and we know that after the captivity 
they denounced the practice as contrary to the spirit and teaching 
of the lavv% the Eabbis explaining the texts wherein the " burn- 
ing of odours " is mentioned as referring to the combustion of the 
aromatic substances only. It is positively asserted that all the 
"valiant men" of Israel " took the body of Saul and the bodies 
of his sons from the wall of Beth-shan, and came to Jabesh and 
burnt them there" (1 Sam. xxxi. 12) ; but this can easily be con- 
strued as an exigency of war, designed to protect the bodies of 
the royal family from further indignities at the hands of their 
conquerors. 

There arc other Oriental authorities who see in these burials 
with spices some remains or suggestions of the Egyptian embalm- 
ing ; but we have no evidence in the Bible of this remarkable 
disposition of dead bodies by the Jews, except in the case of 
Jacob and his son Joseph, who, dying in Egypt, were subject to 



SICKNESS AND DEATH. 



375 



the customs of the land, and for whom it was especially desirable, 
as their remains were to be removed to the Land of Promise. 
Immediately after the death of the patriarch Jacob, we are told 
that '• Joseph commanded his servants the physicians to embalm 
his father : and the physicians embalmed Israel. And forty days 
^vel•e fulfilled for him ; for so are fulfilled the days of those which 
are embalmed" (Gen. 1. 2, -3). 




V PLEASANT LAND.' 



As the Egyptian physicians were invariably specialists, there 
were those of a subordinate class, but belonging to the sacerdotal 
order, Avho devoted themselves exclusively to this curious process, 
which was more or less elaborate according to the price paid, — 
for a single body, from fifteen hundred of our dollars to two or 
three hundred. The rarest aromatics were employed in filling the 



376 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

cavities of the head and abdomen, the whole body being steeped 
in a strong infusion of natron thirty, forty, or even seventy days. 
After this process the body, with every limb separately, was 
wrapped in narrow bandages of fine linen, smeared on one side 
with gum, hundreds of feet in length. Layers of dampened 
cloth plastered with lime were next adjusted to the body in suffi- 
cient thicknesses to constitute a case Avhen dried and hardened. 
It was painted and ornamented, the " face " made to resemble, 
as nearly as possible, the features of the deceased. From the 
charred appearance of the bandages and bones of a mummy, it 
is conjectured that the next process was subjection to extreme 
heat. The wdiole was then put into another case of sycamore or 
cedar wood ; and there might be even an additional outside 
coffin of wood or stone, which was covered Avith hieroglyphics : 
but this was not usual. 

When Joseph died, it is recorded that "they embalmed him, and 
he was put in a coffin in Egypt " (Gen. 1. 26). That this mummy 
was laid in a coffin is evidence of the exalted rank the " fruitful 
bough" of Jacob had attained in the land into which he had 
been brought and sold as a slave. Coffins were used by the 
Babylonians as well as the Egyptians, but not commonly by any 
Eastern people, except for convenience in transportation. 

The final preparations having been made, the corpse was laid 
upon a bier, or sort of hand-barrow, with long poles projecting 
at the corners, by which it was borne aloft by four bearers. 
"King David himself followed the bier" of the lamented Abner 
(2 Sam. iii. 31). In this case the Avord "bier" is more correctly 
" bed," and in ancient times it Avas not unusual to carry a person 
of high rank or distinction to the grave on a bed- prepared for 
the purpose. In the description of the funeral ceremonies of 
King Herod, conducted by his son Archelaus, Josephus says that 
" the body Avas placed on a gilded bed Avhich Avas richly adorned 
Avith precious stones." In the time of the Rabbis babes less 
than a month old were carried to the grave by their mothers, 
while those under twelve months Avere borne on a little bed or 
stretcher. Miss Rogers, in her " Domestic Life in Palestine," 



SICKNESS AND DEATH. 



377 



describes a funeral bier that she saw as having a canopy " made 
of freshly gathered elastic palm-branches. They were bent like 
half-hoops, and then interlaced and secured lengthways with 
straisht fronds." 




THE BIRD OF THK TOMBS. 



It was such a bier, perhaps, that Jesus, coming " nigh to the 
gate of the city" (Nain), " came and touched." 

The Jews had a peculiar horror of being deprived of sepul- 
ture, — to them an ineffaceable disgrace. No more terrible judg- 



378 



HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 



ment could have been pronounced upon the presumptuous Jehoia- 
kim, king of Judah, than the word of the Lord at the mouth 
of Jeremiali : " His dead body shall be cast out, in the day to 





THAT I MAY DIE IN MINE O-R N CIIl 



the heat, and in the night to the frost " (xxxvi. 30) ; and it was 
a divinely ordained penalty for disobedience (Deut. xxviii. 26). 

It is a curious fact, that, on the other hand, the ancient Magi 
exposed their dead to be consumed by birds, lest any other dis- 



SICKNESS AND DEATH. 379 

])osal of them should polhite one of the four elements, earth, 
au-, fire, and water ; but, deposited in living creatures, all such 
pollution is prevented. The fire-worshippers of the present day 
(Parsees), descendants of the ancient Persians, hold to this theory 
and practice. The Zendavesta contains particular directions for 
the construction of the dreadful "towers of silence" by which 
their purpose is accomplished. 

The Hebrew's desire to be buried in his natiAC land amounted 
to a passionate longing. In his last moments the dying Israel 
called his son Joseph, and said, " Deal kindly and truly Avith me ; 
bury me not, I pray thee, in Egypt : but I will lie with my 
fathers, and thou shalt carry me out of Egypt, and bury me in 
their buryiugplace. And he said, I will do as thou hast said. 
And he said, Swear unto me. And he sware unto him " (Gen. 
xlvii. 29-31). And in his turn " Joseph took an oath of the chil- 
dren of Israel, saying, God will surely visit you, and ye shall carry 
up my bones from hence " (Gen. 1. 25). And Avhen David Avished 
to take the aged Barzillai Avith him to Jerusalem, he ansAvered, 
" Let thy servant, I pray thee, turn back again, that I may die in 
mine oavu city, and be buried by the graA^e of my father and of my 
mother" (2 Sam. xix. 37). At a far later day this profound love 
of country was no less deeply rooted in the JeAvish heart. The 
Talmud's exaggerated expression, " Whoever is buried in the 
land of Israel is as if he Avere buried under the altar," is supple- 
mented by the argument of one of the most ancient HebrcAv com- 
mentaries, that " those Avho lay there Avere to be the first to ' Avalk 
before the Lord in the land of the living' (Ps. cxvi. 9), the fii'st 
to rise from the dead, and to enjoy the days of the Messiah." 
The promise in Ezekiel, " O my people, I Avill open your graves, 
and bring you into the land of Israel. ... Ye shall live, and 
I shall place you in your own land" (xxxvii. 12-14), Avas explained 
to mean that " God Avould make subterranean roads into the 
Holy Land, and Avhen their dust reached it the Spirit of the Lord 
Avould raise them to noAV life." 



XYI. 




BURIAL AND MOURNING. 

^ HERE were various modes of burial common to the 
rJ^ Jews, and changes from time to time in their mortuary 
fashions ; but these related chiefly to the wealthy. The 
poor of all ages seem to have been consigned to the 
earth in fulfilment of the penalty attending the first transgres- 
sion : "In the sweat of thy face shalt thou eat bread, till thou 
return unto the ground ; for out of it wast thou taken ; for dust 
thou art, and unto dust shalt thou return" (Gen. iii. 19). Ceme- 
teries were always outside the city walls in retired situations ; but 

kings and prophets, as a 
mark of high honor, were 
sometimes buried within the 
city : thus David and his 
royal son Solomon were both 
buried in " the city of David " 
(1 Kings h. 10 ; xi. 43), a 
fact well known to the apos- 
tles, and referred to by St. 
Peter in his sermon on the 
day of Pentecost : " Men and 
brethren, let me freely speak 
unto you of the patriarch 
David, that he is both dead 
and buried, and his sepulcln-e 
is with us unto this day" (Acts ii. 29). Ahaz was buried in 
Jerusalem (2 Chron. xxviii. 27) ; and his son Hezekiah was laid 
there, " in the chiefest of the sepulchres of the sons of David " 




'i...>^' 



ROCK-TOMBS IN SYRIA. 



BURIAL AND MOURNING. 



381 




(2 Chron. xxxii. 33) ; and Samuel was buried " in his house in 
Raraah" (1 Sam. xxv. 1). 

A¥ithout question, the place of public burying fullest of awful 
interest for us is that known as Aceldama, " the field of blood," 
near Jerusalem. It was purchased, according to St. Matthew, by 
the chief priests with the thirty pieces of silver which they had 
paid to Judas Iscariot 

for the betrayal of his -^ ^ _ 

Master. Judas, dis- 
mayed at the results of 
his treachery, returned 
the money to the San- 
hedrim the morning 
after the arrest of our 
Lord in the garden, 
and, in the words of 
the Gospel, ■' he cast 
down the pieces of sil- 
ver in the temple, and tomb or dw id 
departed, and went and 

hanged himself. And the chief priests took the silver pieces, and 
said. It is not lawful for to put them into the treasury, because it 
is the price of blood. And they took counsel, and bought with 
them the potter's field, to bury strangers in. Wherefore that 
field was called. The field of blood, unto this day " (Matt, xxvii. 
5-8). St. Peter refers to this place of burial as a " field " pur- 
chased by this man (Judas) " Avith the reward of iniquity," which 
became forthwith the scene of his ignominious death ; the cir- 
cumstances being " known unto all the dwellers at Jerusalem " 
(Acts i. 18, 19). The most remarkable fact connected with this 
cemetery is the fulfilment of a prophecy contained in the Book 
of Zechariah (B.C. 772), which strangely forecasts the details 
of the purchase-money, and its ultimate disposition: "And I 
said unto them. If ye thmk good, give me my price ; and if not, 
forbear. So they Aveighed for my price thirty pieces of silver. 
And the Lord said unto me, Cast it unto the potter : a goodly 



382 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

price that I was prized at of them. And I took the thirty pieces 
of silver, and cast them to the potter in the house of the Lord " 
(Zech. xi. 12, 13). St. Matthew attributes the prophecy to 
Jeremiah, — the second part of the Book of Zechariah being 
supposed by some commentators to have been Avritten by that 
more famous prophet. 

Private tombs consisted usually of a small stone house, without 
door or window, erected in a garden situated perhaps just outside 
the city limits, for a family mausoleum. Manasseh " was buried 
in the garden of his own house, in the garden of Uzza; and 
Amon, his son, was buried in his sepulchre " in the same garden 
(2 Kings xxi. 18, 26). A more primitive grave than these was 
the natural cave, such as Abraham bought, within the field of 
Machpelah for a burying-place, now covered by the great Mosque 
of Hebron, in which he buried Sarah, his wife (Gen. xxiii.) ; and 
where the patriarch himself was laid to rest, with, in course of 
time, Isaac and Rebekah, and Jacob and Leah (Gen. xlix. 31). 

In after ages very elaborate and costly sepulchres were hewn 
out of the solid rock, above or below the level of the natural 
surface, or in the sides of mountains, and of one or more cham- 
bers. Niches were made in either side of the tomb for the re- 
ception of the dead : otherwise the bodies rested on the rocky 
floor. The usual size of these family sepulchres was six feet in 
length, nine feet wide, and ten feet high. Some were single 
graves ; others contained niches for eight bodies. A larger size 
was made for thirteen sepultures. Isaiah alludes to these graves 
in the following passage : " Thou hast hewed thee out a sepul- 
chre here, as he that heweth him out a sepulchre on high, and 
that graveth a habitation for himself in a rock " (xxii. 16). It will 
readily be seen that in cases of great necessity or danger these 
rocky chambers could become places of shelter and refuge for 
those who would defy the ceremonial uncleanness contracted by 
such contact. When Jesus came into the country of the Gada- 
renes, we are told that " immediately there met him out of the 
tombs a man with an unclean spirit, who had his dwelling 
amonff the tombs ; and no man could bind him, no, not with 



BURIAL AND MOURNING. 383 

chains : whom he mercifully delivered from his legion of tor- 
mentors " (Mark v. 2, 3, 8). Recent travellers have frequently 
ioiuid these old tombs used as shops and dwellings. Many of the 
ancient rock-tombs and catacombs, defying the ravages of time, 
are still to be seen in Palestine. Among the most famous are 
the " tombs of the judges," the " tombs of Petra," the " tombs of 
the kings," and the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem. The custom 
of whitening all graves or sepulchres with lime to make them 
conspicuous, and thus to protect the Jewish passer-by from cere- 
monial defilement by contact or too near approach, is alluded to 
in the simile the Lord Jesus makes use of in his scathing expo- 
sure of the religious teachers of his day : " Woe unto you, 
scribes and Pharisees, hypocrites ! for ye are like unto whited 
sei^ulchres, which indeed appear beautiful outward, but are within 
full of dead men's bones, and of all uncleanness " (Matt, xxiii. 
27). It is still the practice in Palestine, both of Jews and Mo- 
hammedans, to whitewash the tombs. 

The entrances to rock-tombs were guarded with massive stones, 
or stone doors SAvinging on hinges, or rather sockets into which 
the doors fitted above and below. Thus Joseph of Arimathea 
took the body of Jesus, '• and laid it in his own new tomb, which 
he had hewn out in the rock : and he rolled a great stone to the 
door of the sepulchre " (Matt, xxvii. 60). It Avas of this stone 
that the Avomen talked " among themselves " as they " came unto 
the sepulchre at the rising of the sun : " " Who shall roll us away 
the stone from the door of the sepulchre? And Avhen they 
looked, they saAV that the stone Avas rolled Avay : for it Avas very 
great" (Mark xvi. 4). The recorded fact that this "very great" 
stone Avas officially sealed to prevent any tampering — not ce- 
mented, as some have thought — seems to imply a massive stone 
door, or disk, or slab, Avhich could be rolled into the groove made 
for its reception. St. John says of this halloAved tomb, " In the 
place Avhere he Avas crucified there Avas a garden ; and in the gar- 
den a ncAV sepulchre, Avherein Avas never man yet laid. There 
laid they Jesus therefore because of the Joavs' preparation day ; 
for the sepulchre Avas nigh at hand" (John xix. 41, 42). 



384 



HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 



Several Hebrew Avords for an ordinary grave, whether dug in 
the earth or in the rock, are translated " pit ; " so that " to go 
down to the pit " became an expression equivalent to the popular 
idea of burial. Thus David says, " I am counted with them that 
go down into the pit" (Ps. Ixxxviii. 4); and Hezekiah sings in 
thanksgiving for recovery from sickness, " For the grave cannot 




AT THE TOMBS. 



praise thee, death cannot celebrate thee : they that go down into 
the pit cannot hope for thy truth" (Isa. xxxviii. 18). Single 
graves, especially if not in a cemetery, were often marked with 
memorial columns, or in early times with rude heaps of stones. 
When Rachel, the beloved wife of Jacob, died in giving birth to 
Benjamin, and "was buried in the way to Ephrath, which is Beth- 



BURIAL AND MOURNING. 385 

lehem," her husband " set a pillar upon her grave " (Gen. xxxv. 
19, 20). Josiah, in the midst of destroying and defiling the 
heathen altars, " spied the sepulchres" in the mountain, and asked 
of one of them, " What title is that I see ? And the men of the 
city told him, It is the sepulchre of the man of God, which came 
from Judah, and proclaimed these things that thou hast done 
against the altar of Beth-el. And he said. Let him alone ; let 
no man move his bones" (2 Kings xxiii. IT, 18). 

The word " title " is in another text rendered " sign," and 
without doubt refers to a memorial tombstone. The " heap 
of stones " was a very ancient mode of marking the ignominious 
grave of some noted criminal, devoting his memory to popular 
execration. Achan and the king of Ai were thus buried at the 
command of Joshua (Josh. vii. 26 ; viii. 29) ; and Absalom, slain 
by Joab's armor-bearers, was cast " into a great pit in the 
wood," where a " very great heap of stones " was laid upon him ; 
and to this day the passers-by, both Jew and Gentile, express their 
abhorrence of this rebellious son by casting stones at the mon- 
ument in the Valley of Jehoshaphat, known as " Absalom's 
Tomb," and supposed to be that which the prince " reared up 
for himself" in the " king's dale : for he said, I have no son 
to keep my mind in remembrance " (2 Sam. xviii, 17, 18). In 
the history of the Maccabees' revolt, about 167 B.C., contained 
in the Apocrypha, there is particular mention of sepulchral 
memorials. Simon, one of the Jewish leaders, " built a monu- 
ment upon the sepulchre of his father and his brethren, and 
raised it aloft to the sight, with hewn stone behind and before. 
Moreover, he set up seven pyramids, one against another, for 
his father, and his mother, and his brethren ; and in these he 
made cunning devices, about the which he set great pillars, 
and upon the pillars he made all their armor for a perpet- 
ual memory" (1 Mace. xiii. 27-29), — a curious suggestion of 
heraldry. 

In the East burial followed as quickly as possible upon the 
decease, not only on account of the climate, and the absence 
of aU the modern means of surmounting that diflaculty, but 



386 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

because of the ceremonial uncleanness contracted by even con- 
ventional contact with the dead as declared in the law : " He 
that toucheth the dead body of any man shall be unclean seven 
days. . . . When a man dieth in a tent all that come into the 
tent, and all that is in the tent, shall be unclean seven days " 
(Num. xix. 11, 14). In Persia, we are told, it is still customary 
to bury the body the second or third hour after death. It was 
usual in Palestine to bury a corpse on the day of death. It is 
inferred from the account of his sickness and interment, that 
Lazarus had been thus hastily buried (John xi. 3, 17); while 
Ananias and his wife Sapphira were carried out to burial imme- 
diately after they had been stricken down for their perfidy (Acts 
V. 6, 10). 

The most imposing funeral rites recorded in the Bible were 
those in honor of Jacob, who, having been embalmed in Egypt, 
was taken to Canaan for burial. When Joseph undertook this 
solemn journey in obedience to his father's command, it is said 
that " with him went up all the servants of Pharaoh, the elders 
of his house, and all the elders of the land of Egypt, and all 
the house of Joseph, and his brethren, and his father's house : 
and there went up with him both chariots and horsemen : and 
it was a very great company. And they came to the threshing- 
floor of Atad, which is beyond Jordan ; and there they mourned 
with a great and very sore lamentation : and he made a mourning 
for his father seven days" (Gen. 1. 7-10). In this funeral there 
was all the " pomp and circumstance " of the Egyptian observ- 
ances, — the procession of nobles and the hired mourners, the sev- 
enty days of mourning (a royal honor) before leaving the country 
of his adoption, and the " grievous mourning'^ at the floor of 
Atad, on account of which its name was changed to Abel-Mizraim 
("meadow of Egypt"). But the Hebrew element of extreme 
simplicity was strikingly exemplified in the tomb to which all 
this very great company repaired with the body of the dead 
Jacob, — the "double cave" of Machpelah, the burying-place 
of Abraham's purchase. That the mighty prime minister of Pha- 
raoh should consign his father to so mean a resting-place must 



BURIAL AND MOURNING. 387 

have been matter of extreme astonishment to these builders 
of pyramids. 

The touching Gospel account of the funeral procession that 
wound out of the gate of Nain, — probably down the steep road 
which now leads toward the ancient sepulchral caves Avest of the 
vUlage, — as our Lord and his disciples came nigh, gives us 
probably the most familiar idea of the ordinary mode of 'commit- 




tmg the dead to their " long homes " in that day. First in order 
came the w^omen, according to an ancient commentary of the 
Jews, Avhich explams, that, as " woman brought death into our 
Avorld, she it is who ought to lead the way in a funeral proces- 
sion." Among them, how easy for any one, much more the 
Lord, her Maker, to recognize the Avidow, about to hide away 
forever from her eyes an only son. Behind the bier followed 



388 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

" much people of the city," and last of all the hired mourners 
and the musicians, with their distracting and discordant wailing 
and piping. According to prevailing custom, our Lord and his 
companions should have joined the procession, and wept with 
them who wept, or shared in bearing the burden of the open 
bier on which lay the young man, " the only son of his mother, 
and she was a widow." The Apostle pauses in his record of this 
glorious miracle to emphasize the Saviour's compassion for this 
bereaved mother, whom he must comfort Avith a gentle " Weep 
not," though in a moment more he should place the dead son 
alive again in her arms. May he not at that moment have 
beheld, as in prophetic vision, the sorroAvs of that Virgin Mother 
for the death of her only Son, of Avhich Simeon had testified, 
saying, " Yea, a sword shall pierce through thy own soul also " I 
(Luke ii. 35). 

It was contrary to the laAV that a high priest should attend 
the funeral, or observe any of the customary rites of mourning 
for any relative, not even for his father or his mother ; the priest 
might be " defiled " for his mother, father, son, daughter, brother, 
and unmarried sister, but for no other relation in life (LeAdt. 
xxi. 1-4, 10, 11). 

In the time of Christ it was the custom, from the moment the 
body Avas carried out of the house, to reverse all chairs or 
couches, or seats of Avhatever sort. The mourners sat on the 
floor, except on the sabbath and on one hour of the Friday, the 
day of preparation, and on some feast-days in which " maurn- 
ing " was prohibited. On the return of the family from the 
burial with their friends, they Avere served by their neighbors 
with a symbolical refreshment in earthen-Avare, consisting of 
bread, hard-boiled eggs, and lentils. The friends and funeral 
guests, however, partook of a generous meal, but at Avhich the 
supply of wine was limited to ten cups. These "cups" may 
have been a relic of the ancient custom referred to in Jeremiah : 
" Neither shall men give them" (the mourners) " the cup of con- 
solation for their father or for their mother " (xvi. 6, 7). An 
allusion to funeral banquets is supposed to be found in the cir- 



BURIAL AND MOURNING. 389 

cumstance after Abner s death, as recorded in this text : " When 
all the people came to cause David to eat meat while it was yet 
day, David sware, saying, So do God to me, and more also, if I 
taste bread, or aught else, till the sun be down" (2 Sam. iii. 35) ; 
and Jeremy, in his Epistle, speaks of the priests in the temples 
of idols, who " roar and cry before their gods, as men do at the 
feast when one is dead" (Bar. vi. 32). 

The Egyptians observed the custom of funeral feasts. They 
met at the house of the mourners, and ate the sacrifice or peace- 
offering, — a meal of meat, vegetables, bread, and drinks. The 
remains of this banquet were cast out to wild beasts : hence, on 
the tablets representing these scenes of sorrow, the jackal is 
styled, in hieroglyphics, " the devourer of what is set out for the 
dead." The ancient Greeks followed a similar custom. The 
friends of a bereaved family met, after the burial, at the house 
of mourning to eat together. The fragments of food that fell 
from the table were considered sacred, and were carried to the 
tomb, whence they Avould be taken by no one unless actually 
starving. 

The son of Sirach, who brings much worldly philosophy to 
bear upon his admonitions of a higher Avisdom, thus counsels in 
relation to these painful matters of human experience : " My 
son, let tears fall down over the dead, and begin to lament, as 
if thou hadst suffered great harm thyself; and then cover his 
body according to the custom, and neglect not his burial. AVeep 
bitterly, and make great moan, and use lamentation, as he is 
worthy, and that a day or two, lest thou be evil spoken of: and 
then comfort thyself for thy heaviness. For . . . the heaviness 
of the heart breaketh strength" (Ecclus. xxxviii. 16-18). 



7«^ITH the return from the grave began the formal mourn- 
f^/\/^^ ingj when the passionate expressions of grief, loud and 
demonstrative, before the burial, were, if possible, 
redoubled and intensified. The prescribed season for deep 
mourning was seven davs. the first three of these beinof those 




890 HOME-LIP^E IN THE BIBLE. 

of " weeping," the others those of " lamentation." These being- 
fulfilled, there followed a lighter mourning of thirty days or more, 
according to the nature of the bereavement. Under the Rabbis 
children mourned for their parents a whole 
^^ year. The anniversary of the death of a rela- 
tive was also to be kept ; while, for a season, 
* the Jewish "prayer for the dead" (not, how- 

ever, intercessory in its character) was to be 
i offered. 

^ A recapitulation of the ceremonial of mourn- 

-f ing during this period will indicate the elabo- 

^^ rate character of these observances, as abun- 

dantly demonstrated in Scripture. Rending the 
clothes is perhaps the most ancient expression 
of grief, and the most frequently mentioned in 
I the Bible : " Jacob rent his clothes, and put 

I sackcloth upon his loins, and mourned for his 

I son many days " (Gen. xxxvii. 34). " David 

^ took hold on his clothes, and rent them," and 

I " mourned, and wept, and fasted until even, 

i for Saul, and for Jonathan his son " (2 Sam. i. 

t 11, 12). 

t And when tidings came to David that Absa- 

|,' lom had slain all his royal brothers, " then the 

king arose, and tare his garments, and lay on 

I; the earth ; and all his servants stood by with 

' their clothes rent " (2 Sam. xiii. 31). Job, in 

his great bereavement of his sons and his 

daughters, "rent his mantle, and shaved his 

head, and fell down upon the ground, and wor- 

f. „j^, shipped " (i. 20). At the trial of Christ before 

t - .^fc Caiaphas, Avhen the Lord asserted his divine 

sonship, "the high priest rent his clothes, 

saying. He hath spoken blasphemy; what further need have 

we of witnesses ? behold, now ye have heard his blasphemy " 

(Matt. xxvi. 65). And at Lystra, when the people wished to 



BURIAL AND MOURNING. 391 

sacrifice to St. Paul and St. Barnabas, the Apostles " rent their 
clothes," after the same ancient Jewish fashion. 

In the politer period of the Rabbis the rending of the gar- 
ments was a madness of grief no longer without method ; for 
Avife, son, daughter, brother, or sister, a bereaved Hebrew ri^jped 
his outer garment about four inches in a seam, which was sewed 
up again after the prescribed term of mourning. But, in the 
case of the loss of parents, this rent, with touching significance, 
was never closed. 

The prophet Joel rebukes this custom of implied formality, 
Avhen he exhorts Israel to repentance for national sins : '■ Now, 
saith the Lord, turn ye even to me with all your heart, and with 
fasting, and with weeping, and with mourning : and rend your 
heart, and not your garments, and turn unto the Lord your God • 
for he is gracious and merciful, slow to anger, and of great kind- 
ness" (Joel ii. 12, 13). 

The wearmg of sackcloth is often mentioned in connection 
with the rent clothes ; as well as sprinkling the head and the 
person with ashes, dust, and earth, as Jeremiah eloquently 
exhorts : " O daughter of my people, gird thee with sackcloth, 
and wallow thyself in ashes : make thee mourning, as for an 
only son, most bitter lamentation " (vi. 26). The rejection of 
all fine clothing and of all ornaments ; neglecting to bathe or 
anoint, or to pare the nails, or to eat any pleasant food, or to 
drink wine, are also mentioned. 

A man shaved his head and his beard, sat on the ground, 
covered his head and his face, smote his breast and his thigh, 
put aside his phylacteries, refused to read the law or to en- 
gage in prayer, went barefoot. A woman, like Esther of the 
Apocrypha, " laid away her glorious apparel, and put on the 
garments of anguish and mourning : and, instead of precious 
ointments, she covered her head with ashes, . . . and all the 
places of her joy she filled with her torn hair ; " or, if a widow, 
she would make, like Judith, " a tent upon the top of her 
house, and put on sackcloth upon her loins, and imuld wear her 
widoAv's apparel, fasting all the days of her widowhood, . , . 



392 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

save the feasts and solemn days of the house of Israel" (Jud. 
viii. 5, 6). 

The law — " Ye shall not cut yourselves, nor make any bald- 
ness between your eyes for the dead" (Deut. xiv. 1) — was, in 
later times, disobeyed by the Jews, who adopted this custom also 
from the heathen. 

As if the bereaved could not be satisfied with their own ex- 
pressions of sorrow, deeming them inadequate, the loud cries of 
the family were taken up, prolonged, and intensified by the shrill 
screams and artful wailing of the professional mourners, usually 
women, who constitute even yet a characteristic feature of 
Oriental mourning. To these Jeremiah alludes in his lamenta- 
tion over the sin of his people ; " Consider ye, and call for the 
mourning women, that they may come ; and send for cunning- 
women, that they may come : and let them make haste, and take 
up a wailing for us, that our eyes may run down with tears, and 
our eyelids gush out with waters. . . . And teach your daughters 
wailing, and every one her neighbour lamentation" (ix. 17, 18, 
20). And the preacher; "Man goeth to his long home, and 
the mourners go about the streets " (Eccles. xii. 5). Amos 
calls "such as are skilful of lamentation, to wailing" (v. 16); 
and when Jesus went to the house of Jairus, whose " little 
daughter " was " even now dead," he encountered these hired 
mourners, whom St. Matthew calls " the minstrels and the peo- 
ple making a noise " (ix. 23) ; and St. Mark describes their out- 
cry as " the tumult, and them that wept and wailed greatly " 
(V. 38). 

These women are described as having " their hair dishevelled, 
their clothes torn, their countenances daubed with paint and 
dirt ; as singing in a sort of chorus, mingled with shrill screams 
and loud wailing, distorting their limbs, swaying their bodies to 
and fro in a kind of melancholy dance to the thrumming music 
of tambourines." Their skill consists in the ingenuity with which 
they elicit increased cries of anguish from the family and friends ; 
recounting the virtues of the deceased, and lavishing upon him 
terms of tender endearment. 



Bl'RIAL AND IMOURNING. 



393 



The " word of the Lord " to Jeremiah, prophesying grievous 
judgments upon the Jews, contains an admirable summary of 
these mortuary observances in the family : " Enter not into the 
house of mourning, neither go to lament nor bemoan them ; both 
the great and the small shall die in this land : they shall not be 
buried, neither shall men lament for them, nor cut themselves, 
nor make themselves bald for them: neither shall men tear 
themselves for them in mourning, to comfort them for the dead ; 
neither shall men give them the cup of consolation to drink for 
their father or for their mother " ( Jer. xvi. 5-7). 

And there is still another local picture of human mourning 
in the prophetical utterance, " A 

voice was heard in Ramah, lam ^- _ 

entation, and bitter weeping ; Ea- 
chel weeping for her children 
refused to be comforted for her 
children, because they Avere not " 
(Jer. xxxi. 15). Fulfilled some 
six centuries later by the massa- 
cre by Herod, wherein " all the 
children that were in Bethlehem, 
and in all the coasts thereof, from 
two years old and under," were 
slain' (Matt. ii. 16). If Rachel 
was indeed buried at Ramah, as rvchel'^ tomb 

some authorities claim, with what 

additional and significant pathos is the familiar prophecy in- 
vested ! 

The Bible affords no more pathetic example of parental be- 
reavement than DaA^d's trial in the sickness and death of the 
beloved son of Bathsheba, accepted with humble submission to 
the Avill of God, whose law he had so recklessly broken : 
'• The Lord struck the child that Uriah's wife bare unto David, 
and it was very sick. David therefore besought God for the 
child ; and David fasted, and went in, and lay all night upon the 
earth. And the elders of his house arose, and went to him, to 




394 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

raise him up from the earth : but he would not, neither did he 
eat bread with them. And it came to pass on the seventh day, 
that the child died. And the servants of David feared to tell 
him that the child was dead : for they said, Behold, while the child 
was }-et alive, we spake unto him, and he would not hearken 
unto our voice : how will he then vex himself, if we tell him 
that the child is dead ? But when David saw that his servants 
whispered, David perceived that the child was dead : therefore 
David said unto his servants. Is the child dead ? And they said, 
He is dead. Then David arose from the earth, and Avashed and 
anointed himself, and changed his apparel, and came into the 
house of the Lord, and worshipped : then he came to his own 
house, and when he required they set bread before him, and he 
did eat. Then said his servants unto him, What thing is this 
that thou hast done? thou didst fast and weep for the child, 
while it was alive ; but when the child was dead, thou didst rise 
and eat bread. And he said. While the child was yet alive, 
I fasted and wept : for I said, Who can tell whether God will 
be gracious to me, that the child may live ? But now he is 
dead, wherefore should I fast? can I bring him back again? 
I shall go to him, but he shall not return to me " (2 Sam. xii. 
15-23). 

Even sadder is the affliction of David in the death of his un- 
worthy son Absalom ; for shame, profound as his grief, added to 
the bitterness of natural sorrow. After a victorious battle with 
the rebels led by the young usurper, " the king said unto Cushi, 
Is the young man Absalom safe 1 And Cushi answered, The 
enemies of my lord the king, and all that rise against thee to do 
thee hurt, be as that young man is. And the king was much 
moved, and went up to the chamber over the gate, and wept : 
and as he went, thus he said, O my son Absalom ! my son, my 
son Absalom ! Avould God I had died for thee, O Absalom, my 
son, my son! . . . The king covered his face, and the king cried 
with a loud voice, O my son Absalom ! O Absalom, my son, my 
son ! " (2 Sam. xviii. 32, 33 ; xix. 4). 

In view of all these recorded experiences of hopeless and 



BURIAL AND MOURNING. 395 

agonized grief for the dead, with what sublime simpUcity of 
consolation are those words of the Apostle brought to the re- 
membrance of the Christian mourner : " But I would not have 
you to be ignorant, brethren, concerning them which are asleep, 
that ye sorrow not, even as others which have no hope. For 
if we believe that Jesus died and rose again, even so them 
also which sleep in Jesus will God bring with him " (Thess. ix. 
12. U). 

The antiquity of ceremonial mourning is shown in that which 
Abraham made for his wife who died in Hebron. In the words 
of the sacred history, " Abraham came to mourn for Sarah, and 
to weep for her " (Gen. xxiii. 2) ; indicating a formal manifesta- 
tion of sorrow in her honor. Of this sort was the " grievous 
mourning." a '• great and very sore lamentation," that Joseph made 
" for his father seven days," supplementary to the seventy days' 
mourning in Egypt, immediately following the death of Jacob. 
King David formally bewailed the murder of Abner . " He fol- 
lowed the bier, and they buried Abner in Hebron, and the king- 
lifted up his voice and wept at the grave of Abner ; and all the 
people wept, and the king lamented over Abner, and said. Died 
Abner as a fool dieth ? Thy hands were not bound, nor thy feet 
put into fetters : as a man falleth before wicked men, so fellest 
thou. And all the people wept again over him " (2 Sam. iii. 
31-35). 

Thus the prophet honored the devout king of Judah at his 
funeral . " Jeremiah lamented for Josiah : and all the singing 
men and the singing women spake of Josiah in their lamentations 
to this day, and made them an ordinance in Israel" (2 Chron. 
XXV. 25). But the Lord forbade ceremonial burial to Jehoiakim, 
the reprobate son of Josiah : " They shall not lament for him, 
saying. Ah my brother ! or, All sister ! they shall not lament for 
him, saying, Ah lord! or. Ah his glory! He shall be buried 
with the burial of an ass, drawn and cast forth beyond the gates 
of Jerusalem " (Jer. xxii. 18, 19). To descend, however, from 
the mourning made for kings to that of affectionate hearts for a 
faithful servant, it is pleasant to recall, that, after carrying her 



396 



HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 



mistress's grandchildren in her bosom, Deborah, Rebekah's nurse, 
was buried at Bethel under an oak, with so much grief that ever 
after the tree was called AHon-backuth, the " oak of weeping " 
(Gen. XXXV. 8). 

The roof of the house was frequently made the scene of formal 
mourning: thus, in the "Burden of Moab," Isaiah declares 
of Kir, the fortified city, " in their streets they shall gird them- 
selves with sackcloth : on the tops of their houses, and in their 
streets, every one shall howl, weeping abundantly " (Isa. xv. 3). 
In Persia it is even now the custom for a priest to declaim from 
the housetop in pathetic language the virtues of the deceased, 
and to depict the sorrow of the survivors, who, in their turn, 
respond by frantic demonstrations of anguish, beating the breast, 

and tearing their garments ; the 
women plucking out their hair 
by handfuls, and throwing dust 
or ashes upon their heads. 
They even covered themselves 
Avith coarse brown sackcloth, 
the garb of slaves Avhen offered 
for sale, which was also the 
Jewish mourning attire. 

Among the impressive sights 
of Jerusalem for the traveller, 
none perhaps is sadder than 
the Wailing-place of the Jews, 
which affords probably the only 
example of national ceremonial 
mourning in the world. The 
resident Hebrews assemble 
every Friday at the base of the wall of their ancient Temple in 
the Valley of the Tyropean, and with prayers and tears bewail 
before God the fallen glory of his chosen people. The formal 
lamentation consists of chanting certain appropriate portions of 
Scripture, such as the words of Isaiah: " Be not wroth very sore, 
O Lord, neither remember miquity forever: behold, see, we 




THE AV AILING-PLACE : WALL OF 
JERUSALEM. 



BURIAL AND MOURNING. 



397 



beseech thee, we are all thy people. Thy holy cities are a 
Avilderness, Zion is a wilderness, Jerusalem a desolation. Our 
holy and our beautiful house, where our fathers praised thee, 
is burned up Avith hre : and all our pleasant things are laid 
waste" (Isa. Ixiv. 9-11); and those of the Psalmist: "O God, 
the heathen are come into thine inheritance ; thy holy temple 
have they defiled ; they have laid Jerusalem on heaps. Pour out 
thy wrath upon the heathen that have not known thee, and upon 
the kingdoms that have not called upon thy name. For they 
have devoured Jacob, and laid waste his dwellingplace. O re- 
member not against us former iniquities : let thy tender mercies 
speedily prevent us ; for we are brought very Ioav " (Ps. Ixxix. 
1, 6-8). This touching custom is very old; and during periods 
of foreign oppression the Jews maintained it only by paying a 
heavy tax for the precious privilege of touching and kissing the 
stones of theh once glorious sanctuary. In the reign of Con-, 
stantine the expelled race were 
allowed to enter the city only 
once a year to wail over the 
ruined Temple. 

The once almost universal 
use of lachrymatories, or tear- 
bottles, by Oriental mourners 
of whatever nation, except per- 
haps the Jews, seems now to 
be confined to the Persians, 
who bottle up the tears of 
those who weep for the dead, 
not only as a mark of affection, 

but for certain superstitious notions as to their efficacy to re- 
vive the dying, and to drive off malign influences. The mode 
in which this curious collection of tears is made is described 
by Morier : "It is the custom for a priest to go about to each 
person at the height of his grief, with a piece of cotton in his 
hand, with which he carefully collects the falling tears, and 
wliich he then squeezes into a bottle, preserving them with 




L'EAR-BOTTLES. 



398 HOMP]-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

the greatest caution." These tear-bottles were made of glass or 
earthenware, and of various shapes, though usually broad at the 
base, with long, funnel-shaped necks. They are found in almost 
all ancient tombs, having been buried with their dead as a token 
of sorrowing love. 

It is easy to connect with this custom the words of the Psalm- 
ist : " Thou tellest my wanderings : put thou my tears into thy 
bottle "' (Ivi. 8) ; but there is no positive evidence of the use 
of lachrymatories by the Hebrews, and the allusion is supposed 
to be to their well-known practice of putting away articles of 
value in small bags or " bottles " of leather. 

The royal Preacher expressed perfectly the popular sentiment 
of Jewry when he wrote, " It is better to go to the house of 
mourning, than to go to the house of feasting : for that is the end 
of all men ; and the living Avill lay it to his heart " (Eccles. vii. 2) ; 
and we find its echo in apostolic days in the Epistle of St. James : 
" Pure religion and undefiled before God and the Father is this, 
To visit the fatherless and widows in their affliction, and to keep 
himself unspotted from the world " (i. 1 2) ; and again in St. Paul's 
injunction to '• weep with them that weep" (Rom. xii. 15), at the 
same time exhorting the mourner to a lively faith in Christ and 
" the power of his resurrection," that they may " weep as though 
they wept not" (1 Cor. vii. 30). The utmost punctiliousness was 
observed by the Jews in the visits of condolence to a bereaved 
family during their period of mourning. The nearest relations 
accompanied them to the grave on the three " days of weep- 
ing," to be nearer to the beloved dead, in accordance with the 
rabbinical theory that the spirit did not finally leave the body 
until the completion of the third day after death. 

In this connection there is a curious coincidence, if no more, in 
the prophetic Avords of the Psalmist: "My flesh also shall rest 
in hope. For thou wilt not leave my soul in hell ; neither wilt 
thou suff'er thine Holy One to see corruption " (xvi. 10) ; and the 
fulfilment of this Scripture, as announced by St. Peter on the day 
of Pentecost in his commentary on this text : " He " (David) " see- 
ing this before, spake of the resurrection of Christ, that his soul 



BURIAL AND MOURNING. 899 

was not left in hell, neither his flesh did see corruption" (Acts 
ii. 31). "He suffered and Avas buried; on the third day he rose 
from the dead." The fourth day was one of peculiar lamentation, 
multiplied by the dramatic arts of the professional mourners and 
musicians. 

It was on the fourth day after the death of Lazarus, that 
the Jewish friends and relations " which were with her in 
the house, and comforted her, when they saw Mary, that she 
rose up hastily and went out, followed her, saying, She goeth 
unto the grave to weep there." And on the same day at the 
grave Martha ventured indirectly to oppose the Lord's command, 
" Take ye away the stone," by the significant reminder, " For he 
hath been dead four days" (John xi. 31, 39). Going " to the 
grave to weep there " is a very common indulgence of grief among 
Orientals at this day. It is especially observed by the women, who 
do not take part in the funeral procession, only setting up the 
tahlil, or death-cry, as it leaves the house, but who afterward visit 
the grave to mourn over it in funeral dance and mournful 
wailing. 

The Rabbis, who brought even the ministrations of sympathy 
and love to a very fine point of formalism, were not necessarily 
lacking in either delicacy or shrewdness, as many of their pre- 
scriptions prove. In dictating rules for visits of condolence, they 
came boldly to the relief, one might almost say rescue, of those 
mourners to whom the injudicious tongue of some loquacious vis- 
itor would be as salt applied to a fresh wound. It Avas ordered 
that the recently bereaved were not to be tormented by talk : 
more than this, it was an obligation of the etiquette of sorrow 
upon a A'isitor not to speak until addressed by the immediate 
objects of sympathy. Lest the silence should become oppressive, 
— and this supposes a period succeeding the excited ceremonial 
demonstrations, — a " fixed formula of comfort " was spoken by 
a leader of devotions, or some experienced friend. Tradition 
holds that there was a special gate m the Temple by which 
mourners passed in to their devotions, not without a word of 
consolation from a Levite official. 



400 HOME-LIFE IN THE BIBLE. 

There is much to compel our admh-ation m these practices of a 
religious faith, so perverted and distorted that it is difficult to 
recognize in its teachers the seed of Abraham, the father of the 
faithful ; but alas for the blessedness of them that mourned, 
if they looked for comfort to the " doctrines of men" as promul- 
gated by the Rabbis before and after the coming of our Redeemer! 
" Never," says Edersheim, " are the voices of the Rabbis more 
discordant, and their utterances more contradictory or unsatis- 
fying, than in view of the great problems of humanity, — sin, 
sickness, death, and the hereafter." 

The final conclusions at which Rabbinism arrived were not the 
pardon and peace of the gospel, but labor, with the dreadful 
" perhaps " of reward. To sum up the message of the syna- 
gogue : " Work, righteousness, and study of the law are the surest 
key to heaven. There is a kind of purgation after death ; or, 
according to some, the annihilation of the wicked. All Israel 
have share in the world to come : the pious among -the Gentiles 
also have part in it. Only the perfectly just enter at once into 
paradise : all the rest pass through a period of purification and 
perfection, variously lasting, up to one year. But notorious 
breakers of the law, and especially apostates from the Jewish 
faith, and heretics, have no hope whatever, either here or here- 
after." 

We can conceive with what triumphant joy in the reception 
of the truth St. Paul — learned hitherto only in these traditions 
and inconsistent theories of the fathers — hastened to declare 
the good tidings to all who, like him, had " sat in darkness ; " to 
make known to Jew and Gentile the " appearing of our Saviour 
Jesus Christ, who hath abolished death, and hath brought life 
and immortality to light through the gospel" (1 Tim. i. 10) ; and 
to " deliver them, who through fear of death were all their life- 
time subject to bondage " (Heb. ii. 15). 

It is necessary to dwell upon this perverted state of religious 
things in Palestine during the ministry of our Lord, to compre- 
hend the fierce indignation of the false, bigoted, self-righteous 
teachers of the synagogue at the presentation of the Truth, pure 



BURIAL AND MOURNING. 



401 



from its Divine Source ; while, on the contrary, the fathers and 
mothers and children of the land, "the common people," perish- 
ing for the " words of eternal life," " heard him gladly " (Mark 
xii. 37). 





IWDEt 



InoGX 



Abel, first keeper of sheep, killed by his 
brother Cain, 332. 

Abraham, " sat in the tent-door, in the heat 
of the day," when the Lord appeared to 
him in the plains of Mamre, 12. 

Absalom, fate of, 350. 

Academies, established for lads of sixteen 
or eighteen, 129. 

Aceldama, field of blood, 381. 

" A day's journey," generally about twenty 
miles, 271. 

"A sabbath day's journey," about three- 
fourths of a mile, 2T1. 

Ahab, house of ivory made by, 15. 

Ahasuerus, king, description of feast given 
by, 23; court of, 248; purification of 
maidens destined for the harem of, 248. 

Ahaziah, King of Samaria, 20, 36, 37. 

Alabaster, a kind of soft white marble, 
easily carved, and susceptible of a high 
polish, — so called from Alabastron, an 
Egyptian town, 237. 

Aleppo, an entire village of houses, near, 
with the conical roof, 18. 

Alexandria, synagogue of, gorgeous in dis- 
plays of architecture, 287. 

Allon-hackuth, "oak of weeping," 396. 

Almsdeeds, enjoined by the law, and incul- 
cated by parental exhortation ; a promi- 
nent feature in the Jewish religion, 300 ; 
Christ's instruction to the people con- 
cerning, 304, certain rules upon receiv- 
ing, 311; the law and gospel of, 311. 

Amos, speaks of dwellings of unusual 
luxury built of hewn stone, 15 ; of 
ivory, 15; sycamore fruit gathered by, 
196. 

Animals, palace of Herod Antipas de- 



stroyed because decorated with represen- 
tations of, 33. 

Anointing, a common practice, but formerly 
used only on religious occasions, 235; act 
of, symbolical of luxury, of joy; omis- 
sion of- denoted mourning, 236 ; omission 
to anoint guests construed as an insult, 
237. 

Ajjparel, festal robes presented to guests 
on all occasions of magnificent enter- 
tainment, especially at marriage-feasts; 
to reject one of these considered an 
insult, 76. 

Aijple, what fruit meant by, not known; 
in Hebrew signifies "breathing forth;" 
rare in the Holy Land, 200. 

Ark, taken by the Philistines, 40; a strong 
box or coffer, 391. 

Armenia, original birthplace of the Eastern 
grape-vine, 325. 

Ass, superseded camel for daily use ; most 
esteemed possession; milk used as a 
diet and for medicinal purposes; used 
for riding by ladies, 349; the wild, a deer- 
like creature, very spirited; flesh un- 
clean to Jews; Assyrian sculptures repre- 
sent the chase of the wild, described by 
Xenophon, 350. 

Athaliah, 36. 

Avims, cities dwelt in by, 2. 

JjABEL, tower of, three ruins preserit 
equal claims to; one an oblong mass, 
one hundred and ten feet high, 13. 

Babylon, built by Nebuchadnezzar, 19. 

Balaam, Spirit of God came upon, in be- 
holding "Israel abiding in his tents, 
according to their tribes," 12. 



406 



INDEX. 



Balm, a universal medicine, "Is there no 
balm in Gilead ? " 309. 

Balsam, one of tlie most esteemed of Ori- 
ental remedies, 369. 

Baskets, of common use, made of wicker 
or rushes, and of various shapes and 
colors; white, mentioned in history of 
Joseph, 48; sometimes made of metal 
and rope ; of dignified interest to us, 49. 

Bathing, frequent, a necessity, owing to 
heat, costume, and custom; running 
water preferred for, 241; favorite mode 
of Eastern; frequent washing of the 
hands essential, at meals for example, 
242; method of washing the hands, 246. 

Baths, public, erected at great cost, favorite 
loimging-places, similar to the modern 
clubs ; distinctive feature of Mosaic code ; 
rendered symbolical, 241. 

Beans, very unlike those known to us by 
the same name, 182. 

Beard, care of the, an object of special 
veneration to the Jew, 227; absence 
of, denoted grief; Egyptian custom of, 
a decided contrast to Jewish, 228. 

Beds, simple mats or padded quilts, 36; 
description of Solomon's, 38; of an Ori- 
ental, 38; " beds of gold and silver" in 
Book of Esther, 38; "dinner-beds," 
159. 

Bedstead, mentioned only once in the 
Bible, 37; of wood and metal, common 
among the Egyptians, as their sculptures 
testify, 38. 

Beggars form a large part of the com- 
munity in Oriental lands, 310. 

Belts, their use, 209. 

Bethany, "house of dates," 196. 

Bethphage, "house of green figs," 196. 

Boaz, 106, 195, 300, 322. 

Bonnets and hoods, simple adornments for 
the head, 210. 

Books, earliest, were written on linen or 
cotton cloth, on skins, or on leaves made 
of the papyrus, description of, 130; 
modern, made of sheets bound together 
at the back, description of, 131 ; valuable 
cases for, as in the Koran, 131 ; descrip- 
tion of Kabbinical, 137. 

Bottles, used in gi-eat variety, and made of 
metal, earthenware, or wood ; the more 
primitive made of skins; shape of ani- 



mal distinguishable in, 47; simile of 
our Lord concerning, 48; skin still used 
throughout the East for, and in some 
parts of Spain, 48. 

Bread, principal food of an Oriental, 43; 
process of baking, 43. 

Bread-making, 165. 

'Bricks, Egyptian, made of clay, moistened 
with water, 14; used for ordinary build- 
ings, but stone for large public works, 
as reservoirs and quays, 14; stamped with 
name of reigning sovereign, 14; manu- 
facture of, a fatiguing task; a penance, 
14; depicted in an ancient fresco from 
Thebes, 14. 

Brides, adornment of, 78; appearance before 
husband, imaged to him heretofore only 
in dreams, 78; one-tenth of the dowry of, 
appropriated to perfumes, 78. 

British Museum, the Eosetta Stone in, a 
famous example of writing on stone, 134. 

Burial, various modes of ; changes in from 
time to time, relating chiefly to the 
wealthy, 380 ; followed quickly after 
death, 385. 

Butter, 182; unlike modern, 182; churn- 
ing of, 183; combined with honey, — a 
favorite combination, 183. 

Butter and milk, 182. 

CaUST, builded a city, 2. 

Calamus, or reed pen, introduced, 139. 

Camel, earliest mention of as a domesticat- 
ed animal, commonly enumerated among 
possessions of wealthy patriarchs, 346; 
trained for conveyance of merchandise, 
or for personal convenience; examples 
of its use, 346 ; not used for food, 349. 

Cana, marriage feast at, 47, 77. 

Canaan, land of, 5. 

Canaanites, cities of; great and goodly, 5. 

Candlestick, or lamp-stand, of various 
forms, often very beautiful in design 
and workmanship ; of brass, silver, 
bronze, or even gold; wood for com- 
mon people, 40; that familiar to us as 
an illustration in the Sermon on the 
Mount, 41. 

Captivity, time of, 08, 120. 

Capua, noted for the effeminate manners 
of its people, 230. 

Carts, Egyptian, 314. 



INDEX 



40T 



Caves, earliest dwellings known to man, 9; 
used for temporary refuge, 10; found in 
the calcareous ledges, or artificially made, 
10. 

Cereals, various preparations of, 165 ; corn, 
in Bible, a general name for all kinds of ; 
no grain in Palestine to correspond to 
our Indian corn ; parched corn, 166. 

Chairs, very general among early Hebrews, 
wlio were slow to adopt the effeminate 
custom of reclining on cushions, 40. 

Chambers, 24; those over the gate pro- 
jected beyond the original structure, and' 
were supplied with windows, 25. 

Chariots, drawn by horses, formed an im- 
portant part of martial equipments of 
the Egyptians; David first to introduce 
into Hebrew warfare, 354. 

Cheese, common article of food ; imported 
for epicures ; mentioned but three times 
in Bible, 184. 

Children, training and schooling of; the 
expectation with which Israel waited for 
the promised Messiah made a numerous 
offspring a coveted blessing ; no greater 
misfortune to a Hebrew than to die 
childless; nine words for, expressive of 
successive states of development, besides 
the general terms hen and hath (son and 
daughter), demonstrating parental affec- 
tion, 92, 93; first-born son of every Jewish 
family regarded with peculiar homage and 
affection, 93; in the absence or death of 
father, the male ofBciated as priest of 
the family, until priesthood was delegated 
exclusively to tribe of Levi ; blessing an 
important feature of birthright of ; sons 
inherited father's property to exclusion 
of daughters, 94; matters of family in- 
heritance fixed by law; no wills, on ac- 
count of inborn reverence for law, 95; 
name-days for, optional among different 
nations, 102; sports of, are the same the 
world over, 110; only mention in Bible of, 
is made by Christ to exemplify perverse- 
ness of Jews, 110; instances of. 111; 
training and schooling of; religious dis- 
cipline before scholastic; testimony of 
Josephus; law very emphatic in its com- 
mands to parents to teach the command- 
ments of the Lord to; course of study 
required at the age of six or seven, 121 ; 



the habit of early instruction in religion, 
121, 122; a simple rudimentary educa- 
tion considered sufficient for girls ; means 
of teaching, 12G; position occupied by 
teacher and pupil ; i^rovision for the 
poor, 128. 

Chimneys, in allusion to, the same Hebrew 
word is used that in other parts of Scrip- 
ture is translated "window," 31. 

Christ, preaching of, 289; restoring the 
temple to its proper use, 310. 

Christian, emanciiDatiou of the, 163. 

Chronology, wonderful instances of pro- 
tracted years, 366. 

Circumcision, 101. 

Cisterns, Palestine abounded in; remains 
of still exist; description of; used as dun- 
geons, 359; of immense size; used as 
hiding-places, 360. 

Cities, collections of tents or huts, 2; tem- 
porary abiding-places, 5; walled, taken by 
the Israelites, 5 ; not always of stone, but 
built of combustible materials, 5. 

Cithern, 296. 

City gates, places of popular meeting, 6; 
supplied with tower, 9 ; little door in, for 
admission of belated travellers, referred 
to by the Saviour in the passage, "It is 
harder for a camel," etc., 9; narrow and 
difficult to pass through; "Enter ye in 
at the strait gate," 9. 

Climate of the Holy Land, one of the most 
wholesome in the world, 365. 

Clothing, perfumed, universal, 235. 

Cnidus, women of, 132. 

Columns, memorial, 384, 385. 

Concubines, differed from wives, 54; 
rights of, carefully protected by law, 57. 

Conical roofs, houses with, 18. 

Corn, a general name in the Bible for all 
kinds of cereals, 166. 

Cosmetics, use of, prevailed in connection 
with the bath, 248. 

Courts, places of living and recreation, 
paved with rare marbles, or laid out in 
gardens, 22; places of entertainment, 
23; in which are erected altars, 23. 

Cow, held sacred by Egyptians, 168; fatted 
calf esteemed the choicest dish by the 
Hebrew, 168. 

Crisping-pins, 222. 

Crown of King Solomon, presented to him 



408 



INDEX. 



by his mother, on day of his espousals, 

78; auother, called the dodos, 80. 
Culture, grape, commenced by Noah, 324 ; 

table-lands and mountain-slopes selected 

as choice sites for, 325 ; an ancient 

method of, 325. 
Cummin and fitches, plants raised for their 

small seeds; threshed with a rod or flail, 

322. 
Customs of women, 147-149; Persian, 355; 

funeral, 388. 
Cuttle-fish, sepia made from, 140. 
Cymbals, instruments of percussion, as 

the cistrum and timbrel ; St. Paul refers 

to the clanging accompaniment of, 297. 

Damascus, the oldest city in the world, 
2; a wealthy city, 22. 

Dancing, act of triumphant worship; had 
no part in festivities, except in their con- 
nection with religious feasts, 284; of 
damsels at Feast of Harvest, and close of 
Day of Atonement; sometimes partici- 
pated in by men only, as in Feast of Tab- 
ernacles, 286; formed a prominent fea- 
ture in religious ceremonies of Egyptians, 
280. 

Daniel, the pious Israelite, worshipped on 
tlie housetop, 19. 

Dates, the fruit of the palm-tree; a rich 
source of profit, 196; some eaten fresh, 
and otliers saved for liouselaold stores, 
199 ; yield a rich sirup, 200. 

David, his preparation for tlie temple; sings 
of ''the ivory palaces," 15; at eventide 
walked on the roof, 19; devout assevera- 
tion of, 36; apt simile of, 48; honey de- 
scribed by, 184; player on the harp, sent 
for from court to soothe the melancholy 
of the king, 293; triumph of, 335, 336; 
his pathetic example of parental bereave- 
ment, 393, 394; affliction of, in the death 
of his unworthy son Absalom, 394. 

Day of rest, seventli, its early institution, 
256; description of, 257; keeping it lioly, 
258; Eabbinical rules for, 258, 259. 

Dead, the, preparation of, 373, 376; con- 
tact witli, declared imclean, 386. 

Death, of the head of the family, 371 ; ac- 
cording to tradition, 903; sorts of, 372. 

Devotion, ceremonial, the period succeed- 
ing, 399, 400. 



Dibs, a sirup obtained by boiling down the 
juice of grapes, 192. 

Divination, methods of, 261, 262; all these 
practices prohibited tO' the Hebrews in 
tlie words of tlie law, 262. 

Divorce, formed a subject of special inqui- 
ry to the Great Teacher, showing its 
popularity, 85; obtained on very trivial 
grounds; Mosaic law of, 86; St. Paul's 
advice on, a knowledge of pagan society 
to appreciate, 87 ; no case of, recorded in 
Old Testament, notwithstanding the fa- 
cility of, 88 ; inspired religious feeling on 
the subject of, 88. 

Doors, street, of heavy wood or stone, and 
kept locked in charge of a porter; pecul- 
iarity of opening; porter of, summoned 
with a "knocker;" description of porch 
connected with street; secured by locks, 
frequently depicted in Egyptian sculp- 
tures, 28 ; portal inscriptions in use among 
ancient Egyptians and Jews, 30. 

Doors, gates of, made low to prevent horse- 
men from entering through porch to 
court-yard, and unattractive to divert 
attention of covetous, 29; proverb of 
Solomon in regard to, 29. 

Dress, veil, distinguishing feature, and its 
signification; every-day attire of both 
sexes described; description of the 
"coat," 203; use of cloak, 204; descrip- 
tion of the cloak and its borders, 204, 205 ; 
excesses indulged in ; warning to women 
converts on, 218; fashionable men sub- 
ject to rebuke concerning, 219. 

Dulcimer, a sort of bagpipe, 297. 

Dwellings, caves in the earth or mud huts, 
9; inhabited by the Horites (dwellers in 
caves of the earth), 9; usually used as 
temporary habitations, 10; superior to 
common hut or tent, 10; places of refuge, 
10; private, of Oriental cities, external 
appearance very plain, 17, 18; flat roof 
predominant in, 18; houses of the better 
class built in form of cloister, those of 
wealthy with several, 22; description of 
the verandas of, 23, 24. 

Dyeing, art of, 206; Phrenicians excelled 
in, 207 ; instances of the result of, 207. 

EdAE, Tower of. Tower of the Flock, 
near Bethlehem, station for shepherds, 



INDEX. 



409 



resting-place only for consecrated flocks, 
338, 339. 

Eden, first home mentioned in the Bible, 1 ; 
too beautiful to be pictured, 1. 

Edna, 71. 

Egypt, pictorial monuments of, a royal 
monopoly, represent the process of the 
manufacture of bricks, 14. 

Eli, 40. 

Elisha, entertainment to, 40; pot of oil 
miraculously multiplied by, for the des- 
titute widow, 47. 

Elijah, message of, to the guilty Ahaziah, 
36; "little cake" begged by, from the 
widow woman of Zarephath, 43. 

Esaias, 132. 

Examinations, post-mortem, first made in 
Egypt, 368. 

Exchange, city gates general place of, 6. 

Exhortation by the wise men of Israel, 84. 

Eyelids and eyebrows, painting the, with 
kohl, an ancient fashion, 249; of great 
popularity as early as the time of Job, 230. 

r ARMIX6. chief occupation from Adam 
to Noah, 312, 313. 

Feasts, marriage, and those made on other 
occasions; times of rejoicing, and mag- 
nificent demonstrations, 74-76; governor 
of, necessary, 70; duties of governor of, 
77; given by the bridegroom, 77; the 
three great, commanded to be celebrated, 
267, 273; modes of travelling to the, 267; 
luxury of chariot enjoyed only by rich 
in travelling to the, 268; Tabernacles, 
277-279; Purim and Dedication, 280, 281; 
only, of Mosaic obligation was the great 
Day of Atonement, commanded as a stat- 
ute forever, 281-283; funeral, 389. 

Feet, covering of the, of the rudest sort; 
description of sandals, 214; slippers of 
costly fabric, 217 ; to go barefoot, a token 
of mourning or humiliation, 217; customs 
in regard to the, 218. 

Fenced city, enclosed by ditch or wall, 2; 
built by Cain, 2; character of, 5. 

Figs, a staple product; two kinds only 
named; description of; esteemed for me- 
>licina! properties, 196. 

Filicaja. Italian poet, lines of, 106. 

Fish, favorite article of food, 174, 177; a 
watchword. 178. 



Fishing, an important industry, owing to 
the abundance of fish; how pursued, 174; 
whole subject of, interesting to Bible- 
lovers, 177. 

Fitches and cummin, plants raised for their 
small seeds; threshed with a rod or flail, 
322. 

Flagon, means cake of compressed raisins, 
192. 

Food, 163-169. 

Fountains, perpetual and abounding, many 
contain medicinal properties; spiritual 
allusions to, abound, 363. 

Fruits, Holy Land abounded in; varieties 
of; grape the principal kind of; soil and 
climate adapted to culture of the grape, 
184; figs, dates, and pomegranates among 
the most important, 19-5. 

Fowl, only mention of, 169 ; introduced by 
the Romans into Judosa, 169. 

Furniture, 34 ; coarse carpet, thin mattresses 
and pillows, low stand for dinner-table, 
the imiversal hand-mill, rude pottery and 
wooden spoons for the poor, 35; the in- 
ventory of the rich scarcely surpassed, 
except in value, 35 ; Egyptian carpenters 
skilful in manufacture of, especially ve- 
neering, 39. 

(jrAD and Reuben, tribes of, 2; cities of, 5. 

Games, unlike the young Greek and Ro- 
man, the Jewish youth had no public ; op- 
posed to religious bias of Hebrew charac- 
ter; theatres considered disreputable, 112. 

Garments, description of outer; changeable 
suits of apparel; wimples, 208, 209; fine- 
linen, 210; rending of, no longer without 
method, 391. 

Gates, imposing structures, very strong, 6; 
places of popular concourse, judgment- 
seats, halls of debate, and general trading 
exchanges, 6; city, supplied with one 
tower, often with two, 9. 

Gaza, Samson's exploit at, 3. 

Gethsemane, garden of, kind of lamps used 
in, 42. 

Gideon, mighty man of valor, 58. 

Gilead, cities of, 5. 

Goats, sometimes pastured with sheep; 
characteristics different from sheep; ne- 
cessary to divide them, 340. 

Grain, receptacles for, 323. 



410 



INDEX. 



Graiu-Iiarvest, 320. 

Grape, cultivated extensively, 184; red and 
black fruit only, produced, except the 
white grape of Sorek; juice of, called 
blood, translated " red wine," 187; prized 
in Egypt, 191. 

Grape-vine, iirst found in Armenia, 325. 

Grave, several Hebrew words for an ordi- 
nary grave are translated " pit," 384. 

Guitar, known to us as the cittern, of Greek 
origin, 29G. 

Gymnasium, a place for training, 114. 

HaBAKKUK, inspired words of, 364. 

Hail-dressing, elaborate, a common prac- 
tice; expensive wigs common; also the 
plaiting of the hair, 229; scented pomades 
and oils a great favorite; no less than 
ten varieties used, 229; coiffeur excelled 
that of to-day, 230. 

Hand-mills, universally found in an East- 
ern kitchen, 44; consisted of two circular 
stones, the " uj^per" and "nether" mill- 
stones; method of working, 45; cessation 
of sound of mill-stones, a general ruin, 
45 ; Egypt employed the mortar and pes- 
tle only, 45 ; worked by women ; process 
very tedious and laborious, 45; imposed 
as a punishment on prisoners of war, 45. 

Harp, description of the, 295, 296. 

Harvest, the feast of, 277. 

Hazerim, meaning of, 2. 

Head-dresses, horned, 209. 

Healing, the art of, cultivated in Israel, 366. 

Hearths, first mention made by Abraham 
on the plains of Mamre; in this case the 
hot stones on which bread was baked; 
generally a portable furnace, used in 
Eastern apai-tments to this day; such 
was the one into which King Jehoiakim 
threw the leaves of Jeremiah's prophecy, 
31 ; an oven, 43. 

Hebrews, adopted at an early period the 
flat roof, in accordance with tlieir pro- 
tective code, 18; the last desire of the, 
379. 

Henna, a plant from which dye is made, 
249. 

Herdsman, suffers by comparison with liis 
gentler fellow-laborer the shepherd ; first 
hear of him in connection with quarrels 
about the possession of pasturage, 341; 



in a royal household the position one of 
dignity; Solomon's chai-ge, 342. 

Herod Antipas, the palace of, destroyed 
because decorated with representations 
of animals, .33. 

Herod the Great, erected theatres in Jeru- 
salem, 112; funeral ceremonies of, 376. 

Herodotus, description of sheep by, .337. 

History of earrings, bracelets, and anklets, 
220; instances of tlieir use, 221. 

Holofernes, the chief captain of the As- 
syrian hosts, 38; bed of, 38; bidding of, 
in regard to Judith, 163. 

Home, first mention of, 2. 

Home discipline, did not err on side of 
weak indulgence ; profound reverence for 
parental authority enforced both by la\\- 
and family rule ; relation between parents 
and children typical of that between the 
Almighty Father and his chosen people, 
115; no crime regarded with more hor- 
ror than any breach of the " command- 
ment with promise;" crimes against 
parents unknown; terrible duty exacted 
from parents on account of a rebellious 
son, 116; son his own master from the 
time he could support himself, 116; 
daughter subject to father until marriage, 
117; forbidden to chastise a grown-up 
child, on pain of excommunication; de- 
cided amelioration of the rigor exercised 
in the more orthodox period; severe ex- 
amples of, 119. 

Honey, liow partaken of, 183, 184. 

Hoods and bonnets, 210, 213. 

Horites, cave-dwellers, 9. 

Horse, now so prized in the East, was not 
known before the reign of Solomon ; allu- 
sions to, in Scripture, are in battle, 3.53; 
description of the, 353, 354; trappings 
almost identical with the present; never 
shod, 355. 

Houses, description of dedication of, 32; 
woodwork of various materials in, 32; 
elaborate carving in, 32; profuse veneer- 
ing of ivory in, in the reign of Solomon, 
.33; no reproduction of any living creature 
permitted in the Jewish, 33; reception- 
rooms in, on ground floor, opening into 
court, 35. 
Hunter and fowler, arts of, studied at first 
for food, but afterwards for recreation, 



INDEX. 



411 



170; spoils of, in great demand, 173; con- 
sisted of wild goats, gazelles, hares, wild 
geese and ducks, teal, quails, partridges, 
etc., 173. 
Hygiene, favorable; due to mode of life, 
365. 

Implements, necessarily simple; de- 
scription of; symbolic, 317; sickle like 
modern; scythe unknown, 319. 

Inkhorn, spoken of but once in the Bible; 
receptacle for writing-materials; descrip- 
tion of, 140. 

Inks, for brilliancy and durability have 
never been equalled; commonest made 
of pulverized charcoal, or ivory or lamp 
black mixed with gum and water ; Greeks 
used ink similar to our India ink; kind 
of, used by the Romans; colored; invisi- 
ble ; use of red and green, mentioned fre- 
quently in New Testament; black, 140. 

Instruments, musical, classed under three 
heads, — wind, stringed, and those of per- 
cussion; organ, pipe, and flute earliest 
and simplest of; pipe especially appropri- 
ate for occasions of merrymaking; the 
horn and cornet, 294; trumpets; harps 
regarded of first importance, 295; decree 
of Nebuchadnezzar, 297. 

Invitations, double; of very ancient origin, 
frequent allusions to, in Scripture narra- 
tive; to rich and poor, friends and stran- 
gers, in name of charity, 74; made by 
women; a similar custom of, in Egypt; 
in days of Christ, made by men, 75. 

Irrigation, methods of artificial, 314. 

Isaac, prototype of Saviour, 120. 

Isaiah apostrophizes the doomed city, 45; 
prophecy of, 183. 

Israel, Psalmist of; immortal song of, .364; 
children of. take possession of Canaan, 
5; dwelt in tents or booths during their 
forty-years' wandering in the wilder- 
ness, 13. 

Israelites, favorite dish with, 181. 

Ivory, houses built of, 15. 

J ABAL, father of such as dwell in tents, 9. 
Jacob, imposing funeral rites of; death of, 

.380; resting-place of, 386. 
Jael, wife of Heber the Kenite, smote 

Sisera; blessed above women, as sung by 



Deborah and Barak, 11; kind of butter 
given by, to Sisera, 182. 

Jehoiakira, 131. 

Jehosheba, 37. 

Jeremiah describes, by inference, "a wide 
house and large chambers," with windows, 
"ceiled with cedar and painted with 
vermilion," 15; ceiled houses described 
in, 33; basket alluded to by, 48; orna- 
ments alluded to by, 78, 92, 139; cast 
into a pit, 359; refers to the materia 
medica of Egypt, 369 ; words of the Lord 
to, -393. 

Jericho, the house of Eahab in, the hiding- 
place of the Hebrew spies, 20; the city of 
palm-trees, 196. 

Jerusalem, the Lord's love for, expressed 
in an allegory, 79; abominations of, 99; 
description of books in, 131; charitable 
women in, 188; victorious entry of our 
Lord into, 190 ; hospitality of. 272. 

Jews, fond of names with significations; 
doubtful if any pure Hebrew name is 
lacking in that distinctive feature of, 
102; instances from Bible of names of, 
102, 103 ; sacred custom of, 105. 

Joachim, husband of the chaste Susanna, 
and Uriah the Hittite, places of the bath, 
23. 

Joash, .37. 

Job refers to clay walls; describes creation 
of the sea, by a metaphor, 100 ; allusion 
found in, to three ancient methods of 
preserving records, 132 ; gave his daugh- 
ters "inheritance among their breth- 
ren;" speaks of "an iron pen," 1.39; 
property of, 341. 

Joel, a prophet, 391. 

Joppa, vision of Peter from house-top in, 
164. 

Joram, 37. 

Joshua, 133. 

Journey, a day's, 271; a sabbath day's, 271. 

Judah, sin of, 225. 

Judas, 42. 

Judith, toilet of, 251; Holoferues slain by, 
38; story of, 103. 

JxEYS, large and clumsy, ordinarily of 
wood, 29; very ancient, shaped like a 
sickle, and carried on shoulder, 29; sym- 
bol of official authority, 29. 



412 



INDEX. 



Kneading-trough, indispensable article for 
domestic use, 46; for the poor, simply 
a wooden basin; for the rich, of copper 
or iron, 46. 

Kohl, a black powder; how made, 249; 
how kept and applied, 249. 

Koran, case of, very valuable ; over four 
hundred gems in embroidered wrapper 
of, 131; the spirit of the, in regard to 
morning prayer, the same as Talmud, 
253. 

IjAMECH confessed himself a murderer 

to his wives, 58. 

Lamps, shallow oval vessels, made of baked 
clay, terra-cotta, bronze, and sometimes 
of precious metals, 41; specimens of, 
recovered and preserved in all important 
museums, 41; most ancient representa- 
tions of, on Egyptian monuments, 41 ; 
some date before, or soon after, the birth 
of our Lord, 41 ; suspended from ceiling, 
or fixed on wall, 42; torches called, 42. 

Lamp-wicks, 42. 

Lares and penates, household gods, signified 
the same as terapliim; small figures in 
terra-cotta, wax, bronze, or silver, 260. 

Law, Mosaic, a remarkable requirement 
of, -313. 

Leah, the despised, 96. 

Leben, sour milk, 183. 

Letters, writing, formal and delegated to a 
public scribe ; ancient, written on parch- 
ment; tablets for writing, in common 
use among Greeks and Romans, as well 
as Hebrews, 139; first one recorded in 
Bible, 141; to what use they are put, 141, 
142; description of, 142. 

Locks, description of, 28; inner chambers 
furnished with, 29. 

Looking-glasses, important adjunct to the 
toilet; highly ornamented. 

Mandrakes, love-plants, particularly 
esteemed for their strong odors, 182. 

Mamre, three angels appear to Abraham in 
the plains of, 165. 

Manna, the " bread from heaven," 166. 

Marriage, the patriarchal system ; a feature 
in Eastern households strange to us, 53; 
a plurality of wives up to time of cap- 
tivity opposed by Mosaic law, but not 



prohibited; polygamy not revolting as 
among pagan nations; rights of chief 
wife never disputed; those of inferior 
ones likewise well established ; children 
of wives proper preferred in cases of 
inheritance, but all considered legiti- 
mate, 54; first instance of polygamy re- 
corded in Bible found in family of de- 
scendant of the accursed Cain; law ad- 
monished kings especially not to multiply 
wives; David and Solomon distinguished 
examples of offenders against this re- 
striction ; polygamy unknown in Egypt ; 
Hebrew practice, 58; between relatives 
preferred, 66; St. Paul's admonition, 66; 
proposal of, from family of bridegroom, 
67; primitive idea for bride to be pur- 
chased, 67; no written contract of, re- 
quired until after captivity ; of Rebekah, 
68; espousal as binding as the married 
state, 72; in Cana of Galilee, 77. 

Materials, building, first described in Bible 
by Moses, 13; brick for stone, and slime 
for mortar, 13 ; earliest sun-dried bricks, 
14; more lasting than marble or granite 
for, 14; superb palaces of kings of 
■Nineveh, and the Nimrod pyramid, com- 
posed of this crude brick, 14 ; Babylonian 
edifices, faced with bricks, burned or 
highly glazed, 14; limestone and irregu- 
larly broken stone used for, 15. 

Measures, the one in daily use in the 
kitchen was the one familiar to us in 
the parable of the leaven, 50; Roman 
bushel corresponded to our peck, 50; 
list of liquid and dry, 50, 51. 

Meat, food in general terms, 44; offering 
of, always a vegetable sacrifice, 44; prep- 
aration of, 167; locust, especially inter- 
esting, 173; lessons drawn from subject 
of, and drinks, 201. 

Medicine, art of, seldom alluded to; Mosaic 
code provided as wisely for physical as 
moral well-being, 305. 

Mephibosheth, owed his life to the devotion 
of his nurse, 155. 

:^^osha, king of Moab, was a sheep-master, 

" Mesusah," description of the, 30; believed 
to avert disease, and forbid entrance of 
evil spirits, 30. 

Metals and stones, precious, description 



INDEX. 



413 



and enumeration of, 2£3, 224; super- 
stitions in regard to, 224, 225; held in 
high esteem, 225; art of polishing, cut- 
ting, and mounting, 220; art of imitating 
true gems, 220. 

Michal, deceit of, 37. 

Mishuah, one of the Eabbinical law books, 
145. 

Moabitess maidens, 03. 

Money, i^laces for storing, and valuable 
articles, 308. 

Mourning, of what it consisted, 389-392; 
ceremonial, 395; national ceremonial, 396. 

Mortars, made of metal, earthenware, 
wood, or stone, mostly of stone, 46. 

Mosaic law, a remarkable requirement of, 
313. 

Moses describes the bedstead of Og, king 
of Bashan, 37. 

Mothers, Eastern, praise due, 106. 

Mount of Olives, 190. 

Mule, not known till time of David; 
fashionable for saddle use, 350; value 
of a white, in the East, at present day, 
is three or four times greater than that 
of an ordinary horse, 353. 

Museum, British, the famous Eosetta Stone 
ill, 134. 

Music, both instrumental and vocal, filled 
an exalted office, 291; David endowed 
with remarkable musical gifts, and per- 
sonally proficient on one instrument, 
292; Babylonians extremely fond of; 
very meagre notice of in New Testa- 
ment; allusion of Paul to, 298, 299. 

Mujdeh, " good news," 95. 

NaiMES, always significant, 102 ; bestowed 
on daughters, expressive of personal 
charms or qualities, 103; Tamar, a favor- 
ite with the ancients, 104. 

Xain. widow of, 04. 

Xaomi, took leave of daughters-in-law, 63; 
as a nurse, 155. 

Necklaces, worn by both sexes, 219. 

Nehemiah, report of, 174. 

New Testament, sickness In the, 370, 371. 

Nimrod, the "mighty hunter before the 
Lord," 170. 

Nineveh and Babylon, many valuable books 
of stone found in, as well as bricks and 
tiles will! inscriptions, 134. 



Nitre, or natron, a salt, 247. 

Nominalia, "name-days," 102. 

Nose-jewels, peculiar to Oriental women, 
219. 

Nurse, an important personage in an East- 
ern family; repeated examples in Bible of 
her superiority and devotion ; of Eebekah ; 
in times of rebellion entire trust placed in, 
for safety of child, 109; position of, of 
great dignity and importance; authority 
inferior only to that of a parent ; duties 
of, 155; notable examples of devotion of, 
155, 156. 

Nuts and almonds, 200; gifts of, sent by 
Jacob to Joseph in Egypt, 200. 

OfFEEINGS, according to Mosaic law, the 
mother brought prescribed, to the priest 
(forty days after birth of son, and eighty 
days after birth of daughter), 104 ; kind of, 
105. 

Og, king of Bashan, 37; alone remained of 
the remnant of giants, 37. 

Oil, that from the olive-tree, 41; an indis- 
pensable element in cookery, 181; ex- 
tracted by means of an oil-press; best 
obtained from unripe fruit, 331. 

Ointments and perfumes, first mentioned 
in connection with the service of the 
tabernacle; Moses commanded to com- 
pound the sweet incense and holy anoint- 
ing oil; into these compositions entered 
the precious spices ; incense regarded as 
symbol of prayer, 232 ; this mode of wor- 
ship by appeals to blind and deaf, 2-33; 
not used for medicinal purposes, 234; 
necessary to counteract offensive odors 
by, caused by defects of a sanitary char- 
acter, 234. 

Old Testament, allusions to vine and fruit 
of vine, in; replete with human interest; 
simile of our Lord in, 331. 

Olive, culture of, only second to that of the 
vine; emblem of beauty; leaf of, symbol 
of peace, 181; description of; argument 
of Paul concerning, 331. 

Orientals, water a luxury esteemed by, 22; 
large consumers of fish, 174; addicted to 
highly seasoned food, 178. 

Ornamentation, .39; heads, legs, and even 
the entire bodies, of animals were favor- 
ite devices of, 39. 



414 



INDEX. 



Ovens, houses in the cities provided with 
portable, of metal, earthenware, and 
stone, which were heated with grass, 44. 

Ox, the most valuable possession of the 
herdsman; choice offerings for sacrifice; 
represented of great beauty and strength, 
342 ; mourned with national honors ; food 
of the, 345. 

X ALESTINE, contained costly residences 
other than royal, 15 ; mud hovels in, for 
poor, 15 ; vegetables of, 181 ; famous for 
grape-culture, 184; agricultural year of, 
divided into dry and rainy seasons, 319; 
best adapted to tlie cultivation of the 
grape; only right to pasturage in, 333. 

Palm-tree, no branches of, properly speak- 
ing; immense leaves of; fruit of, 199. 

Paijyrus, used by Greeks and Eomans for 
manuscripts; good for a great variety of 
purposes, 134. 

Paranymph, 71; signification of, 73. 

Passover, description of the, 273-276. 

Paul, dictum of, to the cliurch at Corinth, 
164. 

Pens, several varieties of: in early times 
common to paint letters witli a hair- 
pencil, 139. 

Performances, outward, substitution of, for 
the symbolical worship of the temple; 
sliowed a spiritual decline; studied in- 
formality of, afforded the best opportuni- 
ties to preach gospel to common people, 
288. 

Persian king, the palace of the, upheld by 
"pillars of marble," 15. 

Persians, introduced the extraordinary 
fashion of "dinner-beds," 159. 

Phoenicians, excelled in art of dyeing, 207. 

Phylacteries, use of, 205; instance of, in 
Deuteronomy, 205; of two sorts, 206; 
not worn by women, 206. 

Physicians, highly esteemed, .368; ordained 
for every town, 369 ; Egyptian, invariably 
specialists, 375. 

Pillows, ordinary, made of a goat's skin, 
and stuffed with wool, 37; that of tlie 
Saviour, rough cushion, on which rowers 
sat, 37. 

Plague, the first sent upon Egypt a great 
calamity, 177. 

Polygamy, Hebrew practice of, 58. 



Pomegranate, admired for beauty of flower- 
ing-bush and agreeable fruit; color of 
flowers of; size of fruit of; its juice 
made into wine ; used for decoration on 
account of its gracefulness, 200. 

Processions, wedding, a peculiar feature of 
Oriental customs, 80; description of wed- 
ding, 81, 82; order in funeral, women 
first, 387, 388. 

Prophets, sons of the, selected among young 
men of intellectual promise, who had 
completed a prescribed course of study; 
installed in sacred office of expounders of 
holy things to the people ; few allusions 
to, 129. 

Queen ESTHER, " banquet of wine " 

given to King Aliasuerus by, 39. 
Queen of Sheba, 369. 

Rabbinical books, description of; 

common for private families to possess 
at least a portion of the, 1-37. 

Raguel, 71. 

Raisins, dried, important provision for 
domestic use, 192. 

Records, many stone, invaluable as con- 
firming Biblical facts; the famous Moab- 
ite Stone as an example of, discovered in 
1868, 134. 

Rhoda, the porter at gate of Mary's house, 
27. 

Rosetta stone, 134. 

Eomans, skilled in manufacture of colored 
inks; of invisible inks, 140. 

Rome, book found in, made entirely of 
lead, 32. 

Roofs, hemispherical, comparatively recent 
invention, adopted by the Saracens for 
their mosques and other public buildings, 
18; conical, the precedent, 18; construc- 
tion and description of flat, 18; places 
of conference and of recreation, 19; 
for siglit-seeing, as windows were spar- 
ingly introduced, 19; places of safety, 
and used for domestic purposes, 20; 
places of mourning, as in case of Judith, 
21 ; construction of, 21 ; growtli of grass 
retarded on, 21; rudely constructed, 22. 

Eooms, 35; reception-rooms on ground- 
floor, furnished at one end with a plat- 
form, covered with carpets and cushions, 



INDEX. 



415 



the corner being the seat of honor; here 
master of house received guests; con- 
verted into dormitories on cold nights, 
35; connected witli, were closets for stor- 
ing bedding used at night, 36. 

Sacred writings, the, abound in 
touching expressions of reverence for 
gray liairs, 230. 

Salt, invested with peculiar significance; 
symbol of purity, 178; pledge of friend- 
ship, 181. 

Samson, when taken captive by the Philis- 
tines, ground in the pi'ison-house, 45; 
marriage of, 75. 

Samuel, "communed with Saul upon the 
top of the house ; " established theological 
seminaries in an heroic effort to restore 
purity of priesthood; through his influ- 
ence schools were opened in Bethel, Jerj- 
cho, Gilgal, and other cities, 129. 

Sara, 71. 

Sarah, joy of, 96. 

Sardis, seat of one of the seven churches in 
Asia, celebrated for manufacture of chil- 
dren's toys, 111. 

Saul, king, 37; David played to, 293. 

Saviour, the, his parable of the two house- 
builders, 17; at the passover, 162; passion 
of, 188. 

"Schools of the Prophets," theological 
seminaries, 129. 

Science, medical; Egypt, seat of; its pursuit 
encouraged by government, 368. 

Scribes, calling of, of acknowledged im- 
portance; occupied no mean position 
among their brethren ; secular, military, 
and sacred, 134; multiplied to repair 
losses; pretentious, 1.38. 

Seals, 142 ; devices preferred for, 143 ; scar- 
abaeus, a favorite design for, 143; used 
for other purposes than letters, 143. 

Seats, appointment of, at feasts, 77. 

Seir, cave-dwellings of, still to be seen, 9; 
used for shelter by shepherds, 9. 

Sepia, a black secretion of the cuttle-fish, 
140. 

Servants, a numerous retinue of menial, 
156; their duties, 1.56, 157. 

Sheepfolds, walled structures, doorways of, 
carefully guarded, 337; like those of the 
present day, ,338. 



Sheep, as food, an abomination to the 
EgyiJtians, 168 ; care of, a most honorable 
employment ; description of broad-tailed, 
336, 337 ; animal of sacrifice, 337 ; symbol 
of meekness, 337. 

Shekel (weight), subdivided for conveni- 
ence, 49, 50. 

Shell-fish, prohibited to Jews, 174. 

"Shema," a sort of creed, composed of 
certain texts of Scripture, 289. 

Shepherd-dog, a fine breed of, is found 
depicted on Babylonian sculptures, 335. 

Shepherds, held in contempt by Egyptians, 
333; privations of, 334; duty of, magni- 
fied, 335; weapons of; great attachment 
existing between, and sheep, 336. 

Shibta, an evil spirit, 246. 

Shushan, feast of, 159. 

Sisera, killed by Jael, wife of HeDer, 11. 

Sistrum, sacred instrument of Egyptians, 
description of the, 298. 

Slavery, foiuid in Israel, in earliest records 
of the nation, but, like polygamy, humane 
and protective, 150; could last by law 
only six years, shorter for debt, 153; a 
peculiar feature of, exemplified in history 
of Joseph and in the elevation of Abra- 
ham's steward Eliezcr, 154; in edifj-ing 
contrast to that of heathen connnunities, 
157. 

Sling, apparently simple, but really formid- 
able ; Hebrews very skilful in use of, 335. 

Soap, described, 246; soft, 247; nitre used 
for cleansing, 247. 

Solomon, King, proverb of, 29; throne of, 
39; sings of the fairest among women, 
" Thy stature is like to a palm-tree," 39; 
crown of, 78. 

Son, given freedom, 116. 

Sons of the Prophets, selected among young 
men of intellectual promise who had com- 
pleted a prescribed course of study; in- 
stalled in sacred office of expounders of 
holy things to the people; few allusions 
to, 129. 

Sowing and reaping, the processes of, have 
furnished methods of instruction to sacred 
writers, 319. 

Stadium (a ground for running), 114. 

Steward, honorable office of, very ancient; 
what the office consisted of ; special guard- 
ianship over son and heir of master, 1.54. 



416 



INDEX. 



Stones, heap of, ancient mode of marking 
the ignominious grave, 385. 

Stools, very general among early Hebrews, 
who were slow to adopt the effeminate 
custom of reclining on cusliions, 40. 

St. Paul, limiting tlie bishopric or deacon- 
ship in early Christian Church to tlie hus- 
band of one wife, 58, 59, 120; calling 
upon the Church to honor widows tliat 
are widows indeed, 64; familiarity of, 
with amusements, 114; words in refer- 
ence to Ills active participation in Greek 
games, 114, 115. 

St. Peter, in porch of palace of High Priest, 
28. 

Streets, crooked and narrow, as in Alexan- 
dria, Cairo, .Jerusalem, and Damascus, 9. 

Stylus, liow employed, 139. 

Synagogue, origin of the, is wrapped in ob- 
scurity; beginnings of tlie, discovered in 
the days of Ezra and Nehemiah; found 
in every town, while large cities had 
several, 286; higiiest ground selected for 
site; a meritorious act of devotion to 
build a, 287; earliest church edifices con- 
structed on model of a, 288; main object 
of service of, was teacliing, whicli in- 
cluded the reading of a portion of the law, 
288, 289. 

Syrian persecutions; monthly search of the 
Scriptures, a feature of, 137. 

TabEEjSTACLES, mekorial feast of, a 
religious observance, 12; establishment 
of, 263; feast of, 277-279. 

Table, reclining at, 160; ancient example 
of, 160. 

Talith, " fringed gannent," 125; descrip- 
tion of, 204, 205. 

Talmud, description of a bride in, 78; 
records the words of a celebrated Rabbi, 
in regard to theatres, 112, 113; parcliment 
rolls for use of cliildren, recorded in, 125; 
Jewish Bible, 253. 

Tamar (palm-tree), a favorite name with 
the ancients, owing to the grace and 
beauty of the, 104; in the Old Testament 
are three notable instances of women who 
bore the name of, 104. 

Tear-bottles, 397; usually buried with the 
dead, 398. 

Tents, tliose familiar to us, more agreeable. 



10; formed first of skins, then of clotli, 
10; referred to, in Song of Solomon, 10; 
edges of covers of, furnished with leather 
loops fastened to ground by iron or 
wooden pins, 11; various shapes and 
sizes, 11; divided into separate ajmrt- 
ments, 11; floors of, covered with mats 
or skins, 11; doors of, curtains of cloth, 
12; doors of, served as places of worsliip, 
12; solid foundations of, the common 
opinion, 16. 

Teraphim, or images identical with lares 
and penates of Komans, a remarkable 
element in household worship, 259; rude 
representations of tlie human form, of 
various sizes, 259; rather consulted as 
oracles tlian worshipped as idols, 260. 

Thanks, oifering of, at the beginning of 
each meal, 162. 

Theatres, erected in Jerusalem by Herod 
the Great, 112. 

Tliebes, ancient fresco from, depicts He- 
brews making bricks as a punislimeiit, 14. 

Threshing-floors, always out of doors ; the 
most famous is that of Oman, serving the 
purpose of an entire village, 321; descrip- 
tion of, 321, 322. 

Timbrel, or tabret, identical with the famil- 
iar tambourine of our street-singers; veiy 
popular; examples of its iise, 298. 

Timotliy, religious education of, 122, 125. 

Title (sign) refers to a memorial tombstone, 
385. 

Tobias, 71. 

Tobit, story of, 307. 

Tombs, description of, 382, 383. 

Tower of Babel, 13. 

Toys, examples of, 111, 112. 

Trades, a striking feature in education of 
Jewish children; considered vulgar by 
Greeks and Romans, honoi'ed by Jewish, 
144; prejudice to tanners, dyers, and 
miners; engaged in, by scholars; that 
of Paul, 145; those of women, 146, 147; 
of perfumer and barber held in disrepute, 
233; the fuller compelled to work out- 
side the city, 247. 

Travelling, usually in company, for safety, 
and to beguile the time; exemplified in 
the account of the Holy Family, 268; 
monotony of, relieved by music, 268; 
accommodations, the rudest, 271. 



INDEX. 



417 



Treacle, a sort of, is obtained by boiling 
down the juice of grapes, 192. 

Tribulum, a Roman threshing-sledge, 
heavy and sharply grinding, having 
given us the expressive word " tribula- 
tion," 322, 323. 

Tyrian purple obtained from certain shell- 
fish ; the imperial color, 207. 

Tyropoeon Valley, valley of cheesemongers, 
1S4. 

UnICOEN, a powerful wild ox, to which 
Pliny gave the name of urus; stature 
scarcely below an elephant; represented 
in Assyrian sculptures, 346. 

Utensils, exceedingly simple, 43; the hand- 
mill universally found in an Eastern 
kitchen, whether of the rich Dives or 
the destitute Lazarus, 44, 45; kneading- 
troughs, indispensable articles, 46; cal- 
drons, pans and frying-pans, earthen 
vessels and brazen pots, bowls, cups, and 
spoons, and lordly dishes made of pure 
gold, 46, 47. 

Veil, an important feature of Jewish 
bridal costume, 80; of Eebekah, SO; 
antiquity of; its use, SO. 

Vellum, made of the inner side of the 
sheepskin ; lased for the Eabbinical books 
in preference to the papyrus, 137. 

Verandas, description of, 23, 24. 

Vinegar, or sour wine, several kinds of, 
were used as a beverage, or stimulating 
sauce, 19.5; offered by Boaz; description 
of, offered the Saviour, 195. 

Vineyards, first planted by Noah, 324; 
extensively cultivated, 325 ; enclosed by 
stone walls, 326 ; privilege of poor in, 32S. 

Virgil, refers -to " watering with the foot," . 
314. 

Visits to the sick accounted a sacred obliga- 
tion; held that this act of charity takes 
precedence of all others, 370. 

WaILIXG-PLACE of the Jews, 396. 

Walled cities, 2. 

Water-pots, 34; insignificant, except in 
royal houses, 34; characteristic feature 
of a Hebrew home, 47; used when large 
quantities of water were needed, as on 
festive occasions, 47. 



Weights and measures, only those asso- 
ciated with the lessons of th.e New Testa- 
ment are here considered; Hebrews re- 
quired to be punctiliously just in matter 
of; inspectors of, required, 49; shekel, 
common in Mosaic period, 49; mineh 
and talent used, 50. 

Wells, description of, 355, 356, 359. 

Widow, the poor, 308. 

Wilkinson, speaks of the high office of su- 
perintendent of the herds, 345. 

Windows, description of, 26. 

Wine, various sorts of, produced; that of 
Helbon and Lebanon particularly choice; 
accounted one of the great blessings; 
Noah, first cultivator of; used to great 
excess by succeeding generations, 187; 
words of Solomon in regard to ; its bene- 
ficial qualities; mixed wine is diluted 
with water by Greeks and Romans, 
with spices and opiates by Hebrews, 188; 
custom of straining, 192; common, to 
cool, 192; an inexhaustible theme, 195. 

Wine-presses, hewn out of ledges of rock; 
consisted of two parts, 327; some very 
ancient still remain, 328. 

Wine-strainer, a very elegant, found in the 
ruins of Herculaneum, is described by 
Winckelmann, 192. 

Wives, plurality of, 54. 

Woman, occupy an important part in the 
sacred story, 59; Hebi-ew, not secluded 
after manner of other Orientals; rights 
of wives corresponded to those of hus- 
bands; position of a widow, or unmar- 
ried, especially in ancient times, unhappy 
and insecure; a husband's house only 
sure refuge of, from insult or neglect, 
and hence it was called by the Hebrews 
the woman's mennehah (rest); farewell 
of Naomi ; Mosaic law provided for im- 
mediate protection of young widows; 
privilege of widows; Ruth, 63; the poor 
widow in the temple; expected to marry 
at seventeen or eighteen, twenty extreme 
limit, 64 ; wives chosen by parents, with- 
oiit interference of young people inter- 
ested, 65. 

Woods, principal, for furniture, were the 
date or the Theban palm, acacia and 
sycamore, the fir, ebony, and cedar being 
reserved for the finest cabinet-work, 39. 



418 



INDEX. 



Worship, domestic and public ; great stress 
laid oil observances connected with de- 
votion; he who prays in his liouse sur- 
rounds it with a wall of iron; custom of 
lights and prayers, 252 ; superior efficacy 
of morning prayer insisted upon, 253; 
the posture not arbitrarily described; 
attitude of Solomon, 254; places for, 
255, 256 ; rebuke of Christ, 256 ; images 
an element in household, 259; divine 
institution of the tabernacle, 263. 

Wrestlers, their feats, 113. 



JLeNOPHON, represented as pursued by 
hounds, 350; wild ass described by, 350. 

Yoke, passing under the, 317; " take my 
yoke upon you," 318. 

ZaCCHEUS, 307. 
Zacharias naming his son, 139. 
Zadok, 235. 
Zendavesta, the, 379. 
Zion, 321. 




GlTATIOI^ Em ^[Jl^ipTUI(E. 





(Jicacions FRom ^(jripcurg. 



OLD TESTAMENT. 



Genesis ii. 3 






Page 

. 257 


Genesis xxiii 






Page 

. 382 


Genesis xxxi 


27 


Page 
. 291 


ii. 8, 15 






. 312 


xxiii. 2 






. 395 


xxxi. 34 . . 


259, 346 


ii. 22 . 






. 88 


xxiv. 4 






. 66 


xxxi. 39, 40 . 


. 334 


iii. 19 . 






. 380 


xxiv. 9-11 


20 




. 359 


xxxii. 14, 15 . 


. 342 


iii. 20 . 






. 104 


xxiv. 13, 1 


5 




. 147 


xxxiii. 19 . . 


. 356 


iii. 21 . 






208, 304 


xxiv. 22 






. 221 


xxxiv. 3, 4 . 


. 65 


iv. 17 . 






2 


xxiv. 45 






. 47 


xxxiv. 11, 12 . 


. 68 


iv. 19 . 






. 58 


xxiv. 58-6' 


r 




. 68 


xxxiv. 11, 16-20 


. 359 


iv. 21 . 






. 291 


xxiv. 61 






. 267 


XXXV. 4 . . 


. 220 


V. 29 . 






. 313 


xxiv. 64 






. 346 


XXXV. 8 . . 


155, 396 


ix. 20 . 






. 313 


xxiv. 65 






. SO 


XXXV. 19, 20 . 


. 385 


ix. 21 . 






. 187 


xxiv. 67 






. 54 


XXXV. 21 . . 


. 339 


X. 9 . . 






. 170 


xxv. 11 






. 304 


xxxvi. 24 . . 


. 350 


xi. 2-4 . 






. 13 


XXV. 31 






. 94 


xxxvii. 5, 6 . 


. 320 


xiii. 7 . 






. .341 


xxv. 59 






. 155 


XXX vii. 18 . 


. 221 


xiv. G . 






. 9 


xxvi. 20 






. 341 


xxxvii. 24 . 


. 359 


xiv. 20 . 






. 300 


xxvi. 23 






. 162 


xxxvii. 25, 28 


. 346 


xvi. 3 . 






. 57 


xxvi. 35 






. 65 


xxxvii. 34 . 


. 390 


xvii. 5, 15 






. 101 


xxvii. 14 






. 178 


xxxviii. 6 . . 


. 65 


xvii. 12 






. 101 


xxvii. 26, 


27 




. 235 


xxxviii. 14 . 


. 80 


xviii. 1 . 






12, 304 


xxvii. 46 






. 65 


xxxix. 24 . . 


. 374 


xviii. 6 . 




31, 


147, 165 


xxviii. 22 






. 300 


xl. 11 . 




. 326 


xviii. 7 






. 167 


xxix. 9 






148, .333 


xl. 16 . 




. 48 


xviii. 8 






. 182 


xxix. 19 






. 66 


xli. 42 . 




142, 219 


xix. .30 . 






. 10 


xxix. 26 






. 67 


xli. 43 . 




. 268 


Kxi. 6, 7 






. 99 


xxix. 32-3 






. 102 


xli. 48 . 




. 324 


xxi. 8 . 






. 106 


XXX. 1 . 






. 92 


xlii. 17 . 




. 271 


xxi. 14 . 






. 48 


XXX. 1, 4 






. 57 


xlii. 38 . 




. 231 


xxi. 21 . 






. 65 


XXX. 14-16 




. 182 


xliii. 11 




. 200 


xxi. 31 . 






. 356 


XXX. 21 . 




. 104 


xliii. 21 




. 271 


xxii. 3 . 






. 268 


xxxi. 14, 15 




. 95 


xliii. .32-34 . 


. 161 




















421 





422 



CITATIONS FROM SCRIPTURE. 









Pagel 




Page 






Genesis xliv. 2, 5 . . 262 | 


Exodus xxx. 32, 37 


. 233 


Deuteronomy xi. 1 


xlvi. 4 . . . . 


. 372 


xxxiii. 10, 11. . 


. 11 


21 


xlvi. 34 . 






. 332 


XXXV. 2, 3 . . 


. 257 


xi. 18, 20 . . 




xlvii. 29-31 






. 379 


XXXV. 25, 26 . . 


. 146 


xiv. 1 . . . 




xlix. . . 






. 371 


xxxvi. 6 . . . 


. 149 


xiv. 7 . . . 




xlix. 17 . 






. 353 


xxxviii. 8 . . . 


. 222 


xiv. 28, 29 . 




xlix. 31 . 






. 382 


xl. 15 . . . . 


. 235 


XV. 11 . . 




1. 2, 3 . . 






. 375 


Leviticus iii. 9 . . 


. 337 


XV. 14 . . 




1. 7-10 . . 






. 386 


vi. 28 . . . . 


. 46 


xvii. 17 




1. 9 . . . 






. 353 


xi. 4 . . . . 


. 349 


xviii. 9, 14 




1.25 . . 






. 379 


xi. 23, 43 . . . 


. 192 


xviii. 18 . 




1.26 . . 






. 276 


xi. 35 . . . . 


. 44 


XX. 5 . . 




Exodus ii. 5 . 






. 242 


xii. 8 . . . . 


. 108 


XX. 7 . . 




ii. 16 . . 






148, 333 


xiv. 13 ... . 


. 51 


xxi. 10-14 . 




ii. 21 . 






. 67 


xiv. 34 . . . 


. 31 


xxi. 15-17 . 




iii. 1 . 






. 333 


xvi. 21, 22 . 


. 283 


xxi. 18-21 . 




iii. 7, S . 






. 313 


xvi. 29, 30 . 


. 282 


xxii. 8 . . 




iii. S . 






. 184 


xviii. 6-18 . 


. 66 


xxii. 10 . 




xii. 11 . 






. 274 


xix. 9, 10 . . 


. 300 


xxiii. 25 . 




xii. 19 . 






. 274 


xix. 10 . . . 


. 328 


xxiv. 1 . . 




xii. 26, 27 






. 274 


xix. 27 . . . 


. 227 


xxiv. 5 . . 




xii. 29 . 






. 273 


xix. 32 . . . 


. 230 


xxiv. 6 . . 




xii. 34 . 






. 46 


xix. 35, 36 . 


. 49 


xxiv. 13 . 




xiii. 1-10 






. 204 


XX. 9 ... 


. 110 


xxiv. 20 . 




xiii. 11-16 






. 204 


xxi. 1-4, 10, 11 


. 388 


XXV. 5, 6 . 




xiv. 7 . 






. 354 


xxiii. 5 . . 


. 273 


XXV. 9 . . 




XV. 1, 20 






. 291 


xxiii. 40, 42 . 


. 278 


XXV. 9, 10 . 




XV. 20 . 






. 285 


xxiii. 40-43 . 


. 13 


XXV. 13-15 




xvi. 4, 13-15, 


31 


. 166 


XXV. 4 . . . 


. 313 


xxvi. 2 . . 




xvi. 23, 26 




. . 257 


XXV. 23 . . 


. 313 


xxvii. 16 . 




xvi. 32 . . 




. 51 


XXV. 39-41 . 


. 150 


xxviii. 5 . . 




xvii. 6 . 






. . 278 


xxvii. 32 . . 


. 338 


xxviii. 26 . 




xix. 17 . 






. 73 


Numbers iii. 13 . 


. 94 


xxxiii. 19 . 




XX. 8-12 






. 257 


vi. 23-26 . . 


. 289 


xxxiv. 3 . 




xxi. 5, 6 






. 153 


xi. 5 . . . 


177, 181 


xxxiv. 6 . 




xxi. 9 . 






. 150 


xi. 8 ... 


40 


Joshua i. 23 . 




xxi. 15 . 






. . 116 


xi. 12 . . . 


. 110 


ii. 6 . . . 




xxi. 19 . 






. . 367 


XV. 38, 39 . . 


. 204 


vii. 21 . . 




xxi. 28 . 






. . 345 


xviii. 21 . . 


. 300 


vii. 26 . . 




xxii. 26, 27 




. . 208 


xix. 11, 14 . 


. 386 


viii. 29 . . 




xxiii. 14, 17 




. . 264 


XX. 5 ... 


. 200 


viii. 30, 32 




xxiii. 25, 26 




. . 366 


xxii. 24 . . 


. 326 


XV. 19, 17 . 




xxiv. 10 . 




. . 225 


xxiv. 5, 6 . . 


. 11 


Judges iii. 20 




XXV. 4, 5 






. . 204 


xxvii. 8 . . 


. 95 


iii. 23, 25 . 




XXV. 8 . 






. . 263 


xxxii. 16, 17, 26 


5 


iii. 31 . . 




XXV. 16. 






. . 263 


Deutekonosiy ii. 2 


3 . 2 


V. . . . 




xxvii. 20 






. . 41 


vi. 4-9 .. . 


. . 204 


V. 10 . . 




xxviii. 11 






. . 143 


vi. 6,7. . . 


. . 121 


V. 24-27 . 




xxviii. 11 






. . 223 


vi. 10, 11 . . 


. . 5 


V. 25 . . 




xxviii. 33, 34 




. . 200 


vi. 11 . . . 


. . 313 


V. 28-31 . 




xxx. 13 . 




. . 50 


viii. 8, 9 . . 


. . 167 


vi. 2 , . 




XXX. 23, ^ 


I 




. . 232 


xi. 10, 11 . . 


. . 314 


1 vi. 11 . . 





Page 



CITATIONS FROM SCRIPTURE. 



423 









Page 




I'ago 




Page- 


Judges vi. 19 . . . 49 


1 Sajiuel xxv. is. 




1 Kings xvii. 19. . . 


24 


vii. 16 . . . 






42 


166, 168, 


192, 190 


xviii. 33 , . , 


47 


viii. 21. . 






349 


xxv. 20 . . . 


. 350 


xix. 6 , , . . 


37, 43 


ix. 27 . . . 






228 


xxvi, 12 , , 


, 37 


xxi. 8 . , , . 


141 


X 4 ... 






350 

298 


xxviii. 24 . , . 
xxxi, 12 . . 


. 107 
, 374 


xxii. 39 . . , 
2 Kings i. 2 . , , 


15 


xi. 34 . . 






20 


xii. 14 . . 






350 


2 Samuel i. 10 . 


, 221 


i. 4 


30 


•Hi 7 






232 
65 


i. 11, 12 . , 
i. 24 . , , 


, 390 
. 208 


ii. 3, 5, 7 . , , 
iii 


129 


xiv. 1, 2 . 






134 


xiv. 10, 11 






70 


ii, 14, 10 , , 


. 113 


iii. 4 . . . . 


333 


xvi. 3 . . 









iii, 31 , , , 


. 370 


iv. 1, 2, 33, 43 , 


129 


xvi. 21 . . 






45 


iii. 31-35 . . 


. 395 


iv, 2 , , . , 


47 


XX. 10 . . 




11 


4,335 


iii. 35 . , , 


. 389 


iv, 10 . . . . 


40 


xxi. 21 . . 






285 


vi. 5 . , , 


. 290 


iv. 22, 24 . . , 


350 


Ruth i. 9 . . 






63 


vi. 14, 10 . , 


. 2S6 


V, 5 


142 


ii. T . . . 






320 

148 


xi. 2 . . , 
xi. 14, 15' . . 


19, 23 
. 141 


V. 9 

V. 23 . , . , 


^fiS 


ii. S, 9 . . 








ii. 14 . . 




IC 


2,166 


xii. 15-23 . . 


. 394 


vi. 1, 2 . , , . 


129 


ii. 15, 10 . 






303 


xii. 20 . . , 


. 230 


vi. 25 . , . , 


51 


ii. 17 . . 






322 


xiii. 18 . . . 


. 210 


vii. 1 . . . . 


6 


iii 3 






236 
322 


xiii. 29 . . 
xiii. 31 . , , 


, 350 
. 390 


ix. 30 . . , , 
ix. 30, 32, 33 , 


250 


iii. 7 . . 






26 


iii. 15 . . 






. 204 


xiv, 20. . . 


. 232 


xi, 2 .... 


37 


iv. 1, 2 . . 






9 

218 


XV. 30 . , , 


214, 217 
. 192 


XX. 9, 11 . . . 
xxi. IS. 20 . . 


30S 


iv. 7 . . 






. 382 


iv. 10 . . 






. 155 


xvii. 18, 19 . 


. 360 


xxiii. 11 . . . 


. 355 


1 Samuei, i. 3 






267 


xvii. 28 . . 


• 183 


xxiii. 17, 18 . . 


. 385 


i 9 






40 
106 


xvii. 29 . . 
xviii. 9 . . 


183, 184 
. 353 


xxiii. 24 . . . 
xxv. 12 . . . 


. 200 


i. 24 . . 






320 


ii. 1 . . . 






90 
267 


xviii. 17, IS , 
xviii. 27 . . 


. 385 
. 113 


1 Chronicles ii. 34, 35 
xii. 2 . . , , 


, 1-54 


ii. 10 . . 






114 


iii, 1 . . 






109 


xviii. 32,33 . 


. 394 


xiii, 8 . , . . 


. 292 


iv, 12 . , 






113 


xviii, 33 . , 


. 25 


XV. 28 ... , 


. 292 


iv, IS , , 






40 


xix. 4 . , , 


25, 394 


xxi, 18-25 , , , 


. 321 


viii, 13 , , 






233 


xix. 37 . , , 


. 379 


xxiii, 5 . . . . 


. 293 


ix. 3 , , 






. 333 


1 KiXGS i. 9 . , 


. 108 


xxvii. 25 . . , 


, 324 


ix. 11 . . 






. 147 


i, 39 ... 


. 235 


xxvii. 28 . . , 


. 181 


X. 5, 10 . 






129 


i. 40 . , , 


, 294 


xxvii, 29 . . . 


. 342 


xvi. 11 . , 






. 333 


ii. 10 . , . 


. 380 


xxix. 2 . . . . 


. 15 


xvi. 10 . , 






, 293 


iv. 23 . , . 


108, 345 


2 Chronicles ii, 10 


51 


xvii. IS 






. 184 


iv. 25 . , , 


. 328 


iv. 2 . , , , 


. 242 


xvii. 34 . 






. 334 


vii. 26 . . , 


. 242 


V, 13 , , . . 


. 294 


xvii. 40 . 






, 336 


viii. 22 . . . 


. 255 


vi. 13 ... . 


. 254 








. 67 
. 37 






ix. 11 . . . . 
-xi. 11 ... . 


. 290 


xix. 13 . . 


X. 18-20 . . 


. 40 


. 181 


xix. 13, 10 






. 200 


X. 21 . . . 


. 47 


xvi. 12 , . . 


. 360 


xix. 19, 20 






. 129 


X. 26, 28, 29 . 


. . 3.53 


xvi. 14 ... , 


. 374 


xix. 24 . . 






. 203 


xi. 1, 3 . . . 


. . 58 


xxii. 12 . . . 


. 1.50 


XX. 30 . . 






. 92 


xi. 43 . . . 


. . 380 


xxv. 25 . . . 


. 395 


- xxi. 7 . . 






. 342 


xiv. . . . 


. . 221 


xxvi. 10 . . . 


. 338 


XXV. 1 . . 






. 381 


xvii. 12 . . 


. . 47 


xxviii. 27 . . . 


. 380 


xxv. 4 . . 






. 342 


xvii, 13 , . 


. . 43 


xxxii. 33 . . . 


. 381 



424 



CITATIONS FROM SCRIPTURP:. 



Ezra vi. 15, 1 
Nehemiah iii 


6, 
3 


17 




Page 
32 
174 


Psalms xii. 9 . 
xliv. 11 . . 


Pag. 
. 272 
. 168 


Pkovekbs vii. 16 
ix. 2, 3. . . 


Page 
. . 38 

. 74 


V. 18 . 








168 


xlv. 7, 8 . . 


. 234 


x. 26 . . . 


. 195 


vi. 5 . 








142 


xlv. 8 . . . 


. 15 


xi. 1 ... 


. 52 


vii. 68 . 








353 


xlv. 13, 14 . 


. 210 


xi. 22 . . . 


. . 220 


viii. 15, 16 








278 


xlviii. 1, 2 . 


. 264 


xii. 27 . . . 


. 170 


xii. 27 . 








32 


xlix. 9. . . 


. 310 


XV. 17 . . . 


. 168, 345 


xiii. 16 . 








174 


1. 4 . . . . 


. 322 


xvi. 11 . . . 


. 52 


xiii. 24 . 








286 


li. 2, 7, 10. . 


. 242 


xvi. 31 . . . 


. . 230 


ESTHEB i. 5, t 








23 


Iii. 8 . . . 


. 181 


xvii. 19 . . . 


. 29 


i. 6 . . 






1 


5, 206 


Iv. 17 . . . 


. 252 


xix. 18 . . . 


. 119 


i. 7 . . 








47 


Ivi. 8 . . . 


. 398 


XX. 13 . . . 


. 21 


ii. 8, 12 








248 


Ixii. 9 . . . 


. 52 


xxi. 29 . . . 


. 230 


iii. 10-12 








142 


Ixv. 9-13 . . 


. 317 


xxi. 31 . . . 


. 354 


vi. 12 . 








214 


Ixviii. 35 . . 


. 298 


xxii. 6 . . . 


. 121 


vii. 8 . 








39 


Ixix. 21 . . 


. 195 


xxii. 15 . . 


. 119 


viii. 15 . 








207 


Ixix. 22 . . 


. 161 


xxiii. 13, 14 . 


. 119 


ix. 22, 28 








280 


Ixxi. IS . . 


. 231 


xxiii. 29-32 . 


. 188 


XV. 6 . 








207 


Ixxix. 1, 0-8 . 


. . 397 


xxiv. 31 . . 


. 326 


Job i. 3 . . 








341 


Ixxx. 12, 13 . 


. 326 


XXV. 13 . . 


. 192 


i. 20. . 








390 


Ixxxi. 2 . . 


. 296 


xxv. 16, 27 . 


. 184 


iv. 19 . 








16 


Ixxxi. 16 . . 


. 184 


XXV. 20 . . 


. 195 


V. 24 . 








84 


Ixxxviii. 4 . 


. 384 


xxvii. 15 . . 


. 21 


vi. 2 . 








51 


Ixxxviii. 13 . 


. 253 


xxvii. 23-27 . 


. 342 


vi. 6 . 








178 


xc. 10 . . . 


. 366 


XXX. 33 . . 


. 183 


viii. 5 . 








51 


xci. 3 . . . 


. 170 


xxxi. 4-7 . . 


. 188 


X. 10 . 








184 


xcii. 10 . . 


. 236 


xxxi. 10-31 . 


. 60 


xii. 7 . 








51 


xcviii. 6 . . 


. 295 


xxxi. 13, 19 . 


. 146 


xiii. 4 . 








371 


civ. 15 . . . 


187, 319 


xxxi. 18 . . 


. 40 


XX. 17 . 








183 


cvii. 16. . . 


. 6 


xxxi. 24 . . 


. 208 


xxi. 12 . 








298 


cviii. 2 . . . 


. 296 


ECCLESIASTES i. 9 


. 296 


xxiv. 3 . 








349 


cix. 19 . . . 


. 303 


ii. 4 . . . . 


. 33 


xxiv. 16 








16 


cxvi. 9 . . . 


. 379 


ii. 6 . '. . . 


. 314 


xxix. 11-1 


3 






307 


cxix. 62 . . 


. 252 


vii. 2 . . . 


. 398 


XXX. 1 . 








335 


cxix. 83 . . 


. 48 


vii. 6 . . . 


. 44 


XXX. 6 . 








9 


cxix. 148 . . . 


. 252 


ix. 9 ... 


. 84 


xxxi. 6 . 








51 


cxxi. 8 . . . 


. 30 


ix. 11 . . . 


. 114 


xxxi. 17 








272 


cxxiii. 2 . . 


. 157- 


xii. 5 . . . 


201, 392 


xxxvii. 18 






222 


cxxvi. 6 . . 


. 320 


Song of Solomon i 


. 2, 195 


xxxviii. 6, 16 






225 


cxxviii. . . 


. 84 


i.5, . . . . 


. 10 


xxxvii i. 9 . 






100 


cxxviii. 2, 3 . 


. 35 


i. 10 . . . . 


. 223 


xxxviii. 14 






143 


cxxviii. 3 . . 


. 331 


ii. 12, 14 . . 


. 24 


xxxix. 10 . 






319 


cxxix. 6, 7 . 


22 


ii. 13 . . . 


. 196 


xxxix. 19-25 






354 


cxxxii. 3 . . 


. 36 


iii. 6 . . . 


. 235 


xiii. 15 . . 






95 


cxxxiii. 2 . . 


. 236 


iii. 9 . . . 


. 38 


Psalms v. 3 . 






253 


cxxxvii. 1-6 . 


. 290 


iv. 1 ... 


. 228 


xvi. 10 . . 






398 


cxlix. 3 . . 


. 286 


iv. 2 ... 


. 235 


xix. 5 . . 






114 


el. 4 ... 


. 286 


iv. 11 . . . 


. 183 


xxii. 12 . 
xxiii. 1-6 . 






345 
364 


Pkoverbs v. 15 . 
V. 18, 19 . . 


. 360 

. 84 


V. 1 . . . . 
V. 2 . . . . 


. 184 
27, 225 


xxxiii. 2 . 






296 


V. 25 . . . 


. 251 


V. 4 . , . . 


. 28 


xxxiv. 20 








274 


vii. 3 . . . 


. 206 


V. 11 ... 


. 229 



CITATIONS FROM SCRirTURE. 



425 



Song of Solomon, vi. 7, 
vi. 11 
vii. 13 



via 



XXV. 10, 27 
Isaiah i. 8 

iii. 21 . 

iii. 24 . 

V. 5 . . 

V. 11, 22 

V. 28 .. 

vii. 14 . 

vii. 15 . 

ix. 3 . 

ix. . 

XV. 3 . 

xvi. 10 . 

xix. 7 . 

xix. 8, 10 

xix. 9 . 

XX. 3 . 

xxii. 1, 2 

xxii. 16 

xxii. 22 

xxii. 24 

xxvii. 2 

xxviii. 1, 7 

xxviii. 4 . 

xxviii. 24, 25 

xxviii. 27, 28 

XXX. 24 . , 

XXX. 29 . , 

xxxii. 20 . , 

xxxiv. 4 . 

xxxviii. IS 

xxxviii. 21 

xl. 11 . 

xl. 15 . 

xl. 22 . 

xli. 15 . 

xlii. 3 . 

xlv. 2 . 

xlvii. 2 

xlix. 23 

liii. 5, 6 

Ix. 4 . 

Ixiii. 2, 3 

Ixiv. 9-11 
Jeeemiah ii. 

ii. 22 . 

iv. 13 . 

iv. .30 . 



Jeremiah vi. 9 

vi. 26 . . 

vii. 17, IS . 

vii. 34 . . 

viii. 16 . . 

viii. 22 . . 

ix. 17, IS, 20 

xvi. 6, 7 . 

xvi. 5-7 . 

xvii. 1 . . 

XX. 15 . . 

xxi. 4 . . 

xxii. 14 . . 

xxii. IS, 19 

xxxi. 15 . 

xxxii. 13 . 

xxxvi. 22, 23 

xxxvi. 23 . 

xxxvi. 30 . 

xxxvii. 21 

xxxviii. 6 . 

xli. 8 . . 

xlvi. 11 . 
Lamentations 
Ezekiel i. 26 

iv. 9 . . 

V. 1 . . . 


V. 


I'ngc 
. . 4S 

. 391 
. 261 
. 81 
. 354 
. 369 
. 392 
. 38S 
. 393 

139, 225 
. 95 
. 298 
15,33 
. 395 
. 393 
. 338 
. 31 

1.31, 139 
. 378 
. 165 
. 3.59 
. 324 
. 369 
4 . 92 
. 225 
. 182 
228 


ix. 2 . . 
xiii. 10, 11 
xvi. 4 . . 
xvi. 8-13 . 
xvi. 9 . . 
xvi. 13 . . 
xxi. 21 . . 
xxiii. 12, 15 
xxiii. 40 . 
xxiii. 41 . 
xxiv. 17 . 
xxvii. 7, 16, 5 
xxvii. IS . 
xxviii. 13 . 
xxxvii. 12-14 
xxxix. 18 . 
xliv. 20 . 
Dajstiel i. 5, 8 
iii. 4 . . 
iii. 21 . . 
iv. 30 . . 
V. 27 . . 
vi. 10 . . 
vi. 17 . . 
vii. 9 . . 


4 


. 140 
. 16 
. 99 
. 79 
. 236 
. 210 
. 261 
. 207 
. 250 
. 39 
. 217 
. 207 
. 187 
. 223 
. 379 
. 345 
. 227 
. 163 
. 297 
. 213 
. 19 
. 52 
. 255 
. 143 
. 231 



HosEA iii. 
iv. 12 
vii. 1 



vii. 4, 6 

vii. 9 . 

xiii. 3 . 

xiv. 7 . 
Joel ii. 12, 13 
Amos i. 7, 10, 12, 

ii. 13 . . 

iii. 12 . . 

iii. 15 . . 

V. 16 . . 

V. 11 . . 

vi. 4 . . 

vi. 6 . . 

vii. 14 . . 

ix. 9 . . 
Micah iv. 4 . 

iv. 8 . . 

vi. 11 . . 

xl. 12 . . 
Nahum iii. 14 
Habakkuk i. 8 

iii. 17, 18 . 
Zechakiah viii 

ix. 9 . . 



xi. 12, 23 

xiii. 6 . 
Malachi ii. 14-16 

iii. 2 . . 
ToBiT ii. 11, 12 

iv. 8, 11, 16 

iv. 12 



VI., Vll. 



Judith viii. 5 
viii. 5, 6 
X. 3, 4 . 
xii. 1, 2 
xii. 15 . 



xvi. 9 



xvi. 19 

ECCLESIASTICUS vii 

XXX. 1, 2, 9-12 
XXX. 15, 17 . 
xxxi. 27-29 . 
xxxii. 5, 6 
xxxvii. 30, 31 
xxxviii. . . 
xxxviii. 16-18 
xlii. 9 . . . 



Page 
260 
261 
196 
165 
231 
31 
187 
391 
6 
321 
38 
15 



323 
,328 
339 
52 
52 
14 
354 
364 
111 
268 
382 
273 
91 
246 
147 
307 
66 
71 
54 
21 
392 
251 
163 
11 
217 
38 
119 
119 
366 
188 
291 
366 



426 



CITATIONS FROM SCRIPTURE. 



Page Page 

Bakuch vi. 32 . . . 389 History of Susanna 

HisTOKY OF Susanna i. 17 246 

i. 15 23 1 Maccabees i. 56, 57, 137 



Page 

1 Maccabees iv. . . 280 

xiii. 27-29 ... 385 

2 Maccabees iv. 12 . 213 



NEW TESTAMENT. 



Matthew i. 18, 


19 




Page 

72 


Matthew xxii. 2-4 


Page 

. 74 


Mark xiv. 3 






Page 
. 237 


ii. 16 . . . 




393 


xxii. 4. . . 


. 168 


xiv. 7 . 






. 303 


iii. 4 . 








173 


xxii. 11 . . 


. 76 


xiv. 8 . 






. 150 


iii. 11 . 








157 


xxii. 41 . . 


. 255 


xiv. 20. 






. 162 


iii. 12 . 








322 


xxiii. 5. . . 


. 204 


xiv. 26. 






. 275 


V. 1, 2 . 








128 


xxiii. 6. . . 


77, 288 


xiv. 52 . 






. 204 


V. 13 . 








178 


xxiii. 23 . . 


. 178 


XV. 23 . 






. 188 


V. 15 . 








41, 50 


xxiii. 24 . . 


. 192 


XV. 42 . 






. 257 


V. 36 . 








231 


xxiii. 27 . . 


. 383 


xvi. 4 . 






. 383 


vi. 1-4 . 








307 


xxiii. 37 . . 


. 169 


Luke i. 46-55 






. 99 


vi. 6 . 








255 


xxiv. . . . 


. 319 


i. 58 . 






. 99 


vi. 17, 18 








237 


xxiv. 17 . . 


. 20 


i. 59-63 






. 102 


vi. 19 . 








16 


xxiv. 41 . . 


35, 45 


i. 62, 63 






. 139 


vi. 25, .33 








201 


XXV. . . . 


. 81 


ii. 7 . . 






99, 271 


vi. 28, 29 








289 


XXV. 32 . . 


. 341 


ii. 8 . . 






. 340 


vi. 30 . 








44 


XXV. 35-40 . 


. 311 


ii. 12 . 






. 99 


vii. 13, 14 








9 


xxvi. 17 . . 


. 276 


ii. 21 . 






. 101 


vii. 46 . 








289 


xxvi. 27, 28, 29 


. 195 


ii. 22, 24 






. 105 


viii. 16, 17 








371 


xxvi. 39 . . 


. 255 


ii. 35 . 






. 388 


ix. 6 . 








36 


xxvi. 55 . . 


. 128 


ii. 41 . 






. 267 


ix. 15 . 








73 


xxvi. 65 . . 


. 390 


ii. 43, 44 






. 271 


ix. 17 . 








48 


xxvi I. 5-8 . 


. .381 


ii. 49 . 






. 146 


ix. 23 . 








392 


xxvii. 34 . . 


. 195 


ii. 51, 52 






. 120 


X. 30 . 








231 


xxvii. 40, 50 . 


. 277 


iii. 11 . 






. 303 


xi. 29, 30 








318 


xxvii. 60 . . 


. 383 


iv. 16-19 






. 132 


xii. 5 . 








258 


xxvii. 66 . . 


. 143 


iv. 20 . 






. 128 


xiii. 3 . 








319 


Mark i. 7 . . . 


. 157 


iv. 22 . 






. 289 


xiii. 30. 








321 


ii. 3, 4 . . . 


. 22 


iv. 32 . 






. 289 


xiii. 35 








289 


ii. 4 . . . . 


. 36 


V. 6 . . 






. 177 


xiii. 45 








225 


ii. 16 . . . 


. 163 


V. 18 . 






. 36 


xiii. 54 








289 


iii. 6 . . . 


. 259 


vi. 1 . 






. 166 


xiv. 20 . 








49 


iv. 38 . . . 


. 37 


vi. 6 ._ 






. 170 


XV. 6 . 








110 


V. 2, 3, 8, . . 


. 383 


vi. 11 . 






. 259 


XV. 34 . 

XV. 37 . 








177 
49 


V. 38 . . . 
vii. 3, 4 . . 


. 392 
. 245 


vi. 47-49 
vii. 4, 5 






. 17 

. 287 


xvi. 19 . 








29 


ix. 3 . . . 


. 248 


vii. 15 . 






. 64 


xix. 3-8 








86 


X. 10 . . . 


. 86 


vii. 31, 32 






. Ill 


xix. 10. 








86 


X. 12 . . . 


. 86 


vii. 32 . 






. 294 


xix. 13 . 








106 


X. 14, 16 . . 


. 106 


vii. 34 . 






. 163 


xix. 24 . 








9 


xi. 25 . . . 


. 255 


vii. 38 . 






. 160 


xxi. 4 . 








268 


xii. 1 . . . 


. 327 


vii. 44 . 






214, 232 


xxi. 13 . 








310 


xii. .37 . . . 


. 401 


vii. 44-46 






. 237 


xxi. 15, 16 








279 


xii. 43, 44 . . 


. 64 


viii. 43 . 






. 371 



CITATIONS FROM SCRIPTURE. 



427 



Luke x. 34 
X. 35 . 
X. 39 . 
X. 41, 42 
xi. 7 . 
xi. 12 . 
xii. 18 . 

■ xii. 33 . 
xii. 35 . 
xiii. 6 . 
xiii. 14. 
xiii. 21 . 
xiii. 25 . 
xiv. 8-10 
xiv. 14. 
xiv. 16, 17 
xiv. 20 . 
xiv. 28 . 
XV. 23 . 
XV. 56 . 
xvi. 5-7 
xvi. 20 . 
xvii. 11 
xix. 8 . 
XX. 29-33 
XX. 35, 36 
XX. 46, 47 
xxi. 1-4 
. xxi. 5 . 
xxii. 21 
xxii. 31 
xxiii. 54 
xxiv. 30, 3 
xxiv. 42 

JoHX ii. 6 . 
ii. 8 . . 
ii. 14-16 
iii. 29 . 
iv. 7 . 
iv. 9 . 
iv. 12 . 
iv. 28 . 
iv. 31, 32, 
v. 9 . . 
vi. . . 
vi. 11 . 
vi. 27 . 
vi. 51, 55 
vi. 59 . 
vii. 32 . 
vii. 37 . 
viii. 2 . 


1 




.- 


Page 
238 
271 
128 
150 
35 
170 
324 
308 
208 
328 
259 
50 
82 

304 

74 

83 

327 

168 

335 

50 

311 

170 

307 

64 

64 

138 

308 

309 

162 

323 

257 

162 

178 

47, 51 

7,157 

310 

73 

147 

163 

356 

47 

200 

36 

177 

162 

200 

200 

. 287 

. 289 

. 279 

. 128 











Pase 




Page 


John ix. 1, 2 . . . . 365 


Acts xvi. 13 ... . 


290 


ix. 8 . 








310 


xviii. 3 . . . . 


145 


ix. 44 . 








373 


xix. 24, 35 . . . 


260 


X. 3-5 . 








336 


XX. 8 . . . . . 


25 


x. 11, 12 








335 


XX. 24 


114 


X. 12 . 








338 


xxii. 3 


128 


X. 22, 23 








280 


xxvi. 14 ... . 


317 


Xi. 3, 17 








386 


EOMANS vii. 2 . . . 


88 


xi. 31, 39 








399 


xi. 24 


331 


xi. 55 . 








267 


xii. 15 


398 


xii. 24 . 








320 


xiv. 17 


200 


xiii. 4 . 








204 


XV. 26 


308 


xiii. 18 . 








272 


1 Corinthians iv. 11, 




xiii. 23 . 








160 


12 


145 


xiii. 26 . 








162 


V. 7 


276 


XV. 1, 5 








331 


vii. 10-10 .... 


86 


XV. 15 . 








158 


vii. 22 


158 


xvii. 1 . 








255 


vii. 30 


398 


xviii. 3 








42 


vii. 39 


66 


xix. 23 . 








203 


viii. 13 


202 


xix. 36. 








274 


X. 16 


162 


xix. 38-40 






373 


X. 25, 31, 32 . . . 


165 


xix. 41, 42 






383 


X. 31 


202 


XX. 6, 7 . 






374 


xi. 15 


228 


xxi. 5 . 








44 


xi. 26 


331 


xxi. 6 . 








177 


xiii. 1 


297 


xxi. 7 . 








203 


xiii. 3 


311 


xxi. 9, 13 








177 


2 Corinthians iii. 18 . 


222 


Acts i. 5 . 








277 


V. 21 


284 


i. 12 . 








271 


vi. 14 


86 


i. 12, 13, 1 


4 






26 


xi. 2 


73 


i. IS, 19 








381 


xvi. 15 


308 


ii. 5 . 








272 


xvi. 19 


288 


ii. 15 . 








254 


Galatians iii. 24 . . 


125 


ii. 17 . 








277 


iv. 1. 2 


155 


ii. 29 . 








380 


V. 1 


318 


ii. 31 . 








399 


vi. 11 


143 


ii. 46 . 








288 


Ephesians iii. 14 . . 


255 


iii. 2 . 








311 


V. 19 


299 


v. 6 . . 








373 


V. 33 


84 


V. 6, 10 








■386 


vi. 1-14 . . . . 


120 


V. 15 . 








36 


vi. 5, 9 


158 


viii. 27 . 








268 


vi. 14 


208 


ix. 36 . 








308 


CoLOSSiANS iii. 16 . . 


299 


ix. 36, 43 








174 


iv. 15 


■ 288 


ix. 37 . 






25, 373 


iv. IS 


143 


X. 9. . 






19, 256 


1 Thess.:VI>onians iv. 




X. 12 . 






. 164 


13, 14 ... . 


395 


X. 28 . 








164 


2 Thessalonians iii. 




s. 31 . 








308 


17 


143 


xii. 10 . 








6 


1 Timothy i. 10 . . . 


400 


xii. 13, 14 








27 


ii. 8 


255 



428 



CITATIONS FROM SCRIPTURE. 



1 Timothy ii. 10 

iii. 2, 12 . . 
iii. 4, 5 . . 
iii. 12 . . . 
V. 3, 11 . . 
V. 5, 10, 11, 14 

2 Timothy ii. 26 

iii. 14, 15 . . 

iv. 7, 8 . . . 

iv. 13 . . . . 

Titus ii. 3-5 . . 



Page 
149 

59 
120 
120 

64 
149 
170 
125 
114 
131 



Philemon 2 . 
Hebrews ii. 15 

X. 1, 4 . . 

xi. 37 . . 



XI. 



James i. 12 . 

i. 23 . . . 

V. 14 . . 
1 Peter iii. 4 

iii. 5, 6. . 
Kevelation i. 13 



Page 

288 
400 
340 
208 
10 



222 

241, 370 

104, 149 

. 59 

. 208 



Kevelation 
ii. 17 . 
iii. 20 . 
vii. 9, 14 
viii. 3 . 
xiii. 8 . 
xiv. 2, 3 
XV. 3 . 
xvii. 4 . 
xix. 7 . 
xxi. 19, 20 



Page 
41 
369 

27 
248 
232 
270 
299 
299 
225 




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